learning and behaviour

Question 1

What is classical/Pavlovian conditioning?

Answer 1

Learn that a specific event (US) follows a
signal (CS)
Responses made in anticipation or
preparation for even

Question 2

What is instrumental and free operant learning?

Answer 2

Learn that a response (R) in a specific context (Sd) produces a specific outcome (Sr)
Responses made to generate or avoid outcome in that context

Question 3

What do CS, US, CR, UR, Sd, Operant, Rf mean?

Answer 3

CS - Conditioned Stimulus: This is a stimulus that initially does not trigger a specific response but comes to do so after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
US - Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a specific response without prior conditioning.
CR - Conditioned Response: This is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus have been paired.
UR - Unconditioned Response: This is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
Sd - Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant response is reinforced.
Operant: This refers to an active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.
Rf - Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior that it follows.

Question 4

what is effective reinforcement?

Answer 4

three important factors for reinforcement/punishment which need to be considered for effective behavioural change:

Immediacy/Contiguity
* The consequence should occur soon after reaching
a target or goal.
Contingency
* The consequence should occur reliably after
reaching a target or goal, and access to it at any
other times should be limited.
Value
* The consequence should be valuable and/or
meaningful to you

Question 5

What is the difference between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment?

Answer 5

positive reinforcement: behaviour causes a positive outcome, behaviour increases
negative reinforcement: behaviour avoids negatiive outcome, behaviour increases
positive punishment: behaviour causes punishment, behaviour decreases
negative punishment: behaviour prevents a good outcome, behaviour decreases

Question 6

What are Discrete trial vs Free Operant procedures?

Answer 6

Discrete trial: single trial, measured using objective Dvs such as time or errors.
Free operant procedure: rat placed in situation, makes ‘right’ response and is rewarded

Question 7

Outline some limitations associated with discrete trial procedures

Answer 7

when subject can respond is constrained
one response and one reinforcer per trial
handling stress

Question 8

outline what is meant by B = kR

Answer 8

The rates of the response is
proportional to the rate of
reinforcement
B (rate of behaviour) = k (slope constant) R (rate of reinforcement)

Question 9

outline the different schedules of reinforcement

Answer 9

• how often is a behaviour rewarded in operant conditioning?

Fixed ratio - behaviour is reinforced after a number of responses.

Variable ratio - behaviour is reinforced after an unpredictable umber of responses. No pauses, as reinforcement is unpredictable = this reinforcement scheduele used in gambling and highly resistant to extinction

Fixed interval - reinforces behaviour after a fixed amount of time, not based on responses. Responses are slow after reinforcement but increase as the interval approaches

Variable interval - behaviour is reinforvement after an unpredictable amount of time.

Question 10

Name the 4 types of reinforcers

Answer 10

Primary Reinforcers: These are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives. Examples include food, water, and sleep. They are inherently valuable and do not require learning to be effective.

Secondary Reinforcers (or Conditioned Reinforcers): These do not satisfy biological needs but are effective through their association with primary reinforcers. Money is a common example; it is not inherently valuable but can be used to obtain primary reinforcers.

Activity Reinforcers/Premack principle: These involve access to activities that are inherently enjoyable. For instance, playing a video game or watching a favourite TV show can serve as an activity reinforcer.

Token Economies: This system involves symbolic reinforcers (tokens) that can be exchanged for other reinforcers, primary or secondary. It’s commonly used in settings like classrooms or therapeutic programs where tokens can be earned for specific behaviours and later exchanged for privileges, items, or activities.

Question 11

What is the premack principle?

Answer 11

The Premack Principle is a falls under the category of activity reinforcers in behavioural psychology. It is often used to increase the likelihood of a target behavior by using a more desirable activity as a reinforcer.

The Premack Principle states that a more probable behavior can reinforce a less probable behavior. In practical terms, this means that an activity a person is more likely to do can be used as a reward to reinforce an activity they are less likely to do.

Question 12

Outline some issues associated with primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers

Answer 12

primary reinforcers:
Heavily dependent on motivational state
* Satiety– Or very contextual
* Status is culturally determined, utility is situation
specific– Suffer from poor contiguity
* High transactional costs, slow to deliver, can interfere
with ongoing behaviour

secondary reinforcers:
– Must be established via classical conditioning
* Expensive and time consuming– Can extinguish or be counter-conditioned

Question 13

outline advantages of activity rewards and token economies

Answer 13

activity rewards
Cheap and intrinsic;– Usually good for those who find usual
rewards uninteresting

token economies
success with Sz patients
contiguity (can usually be given immediately, low cost and don’t interfere with behaviour)
value - universal reinforcers cater to individual taste, not subject to satiety

Question 14

what are universal reinforcers with an example

Answer 14

Universal reinforcers are a subset of secondary reinforcers that are widely effective across many different individuals and situations. For example, money is typically considered a universal reinforcer because it does not satisfy a biological need directly but is highly effective in reinforcing behavior due to its ability to be exchanged for a variety of primary reinforcers (like food, shelter) and other secondary reinforcers (like entertainment, luxury items).

Question 15

what two things are needed to train complex behaviour?

Answer 15

shaping
chaning

Question 16

what is shaping

Answer 16

Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

This technique is used when the behavior does not yet exist, so you reinforce any behavior that is closer to the desired behavior. This is because classical condition affects pre-existing behaviours/responses, but shaping with instrumental conditioning can generate entirely novel behaviours.

Over time, response strength and accuracy increases, only behaviors that increasingly resemble the desired behavior are reinforced, allowing you to “shape” the behavior incrementally.

Question 17

what is response chaning?

Answer 17

Chaining involves teaching a complex behavior by breaking it down into simpler, discrete parts or steps, and then linking these steps together in a sequence. Each step of the sequence is taught individually, and the reinforcement is given for completing each step. The sequences can be built up gradually until the entire sequence is performed fluidly.

Question 18

what three principles must be adhered to for effective shaping?

Answer 18

Close temporal contiguity between R and Rft–Avoid giving spurious Rfts! This degrades contingency–Avoid reinforcing the wrong behaviour – development of “superstitious”
behaviour

Question 19

give an example of response chaning

Answer 19

if teaching someone to prepare a cup of tea, you might break the task into steps like filling the kettle, boiling the water, placing a teabag in a cup, pouring the water, and finally adding milk or sugar. Each step would be taught and reinforced in sequence.

Question 20

Running in a maze used to be considered a response chain. why isn’t it anymore?

Answer 20

when an animal runs a maze, the behavior is more often shaped as a whole rather than taught in discrete steps. The animal may learn to run the maze through trial and error, guided by rewards that occur at the end of the maze rather than for individual steps within the maze. The process involves forming a cognitive map or using cues within the environment to learn the path, rather than chaining discrete responses together.

Furthermore, maze running can involve a variety of problem-solving strategies and may not always follow the same sequence of actions, unlike a response chain where the sequence is fixed and each response is a conditioned cue for the next.

Question 21

Outline the features of extinction of operant behaviour

Answer 21

extinction occurs when the contingency between response and outcome is removed which causes the established response to decline

Extinction is not ‘unlearning’ or ‘forgetting’ as it can be reinstated

Question 22

Outline the types of relapse (spontaneous recovery, renewal, reinstatement, stress-induced reinstatement)

Answer 22

Spontaneous Recovery: This occurs when an extinguished response reappears after a period of no exposure to the conditioning or extinction context, without any additional reinforcement. Suggests that original learning is not erased but is temporarily suppressed during extinction. The context in which the learning took place, or a similar context, can serve as a powerful cue that reignites the memory of the behavior and its associated reinforcement, even after a period of non-reinforcement.

Renewal: This effect happens when a behavior is extinguished in a different context from where it was acquired and then the behavior reappears when the individual returns to the original learning context.

Reinstatement: Encountering the Outcome (the reinforcer) can trigger
a relapse of the extinguished
response e.g gambler sees someone else win causing gambling behaviour to come back

Stress-induced Reinstatement: stress triggers the return of a behaviour e.g biting nails harder not to do when you are stressed

Question 23

Outline partial reinforcement effect in extinction (PREE) with an example

Answer 23

What is PREE?
The Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect occurs when a behavior that has been reinforced intermittently (partially) takes longer to extinguish than a behavior that has been reinforced continuously. In other words, if a behavior is sometimes but not always rewarded, it becomes more resistant to extinction compared to a behavior that is rewarded every time it is performed.

Why Does PREE Occur?
The theory behind PREE suggests that when reinforcement is partial or intermittent, the individual learns that the absence of reinforcement at a particular instance does not necessarily mean that future responses will not be reinforced. This uncertainty leads to a more persistent behavior during the extinction phase where no reinforcement is provided at all.

For example, if a vending machine sometimes gives you a snack when you insert money and sometimes doesn’t, you may continue to try inserting money even when it stops dispensing snacks entirely because you’ve learned that sometimes you need to try more than once to get a reward.

Question 24

what is a discriminative stimulus (Sd)?

Answer 24

discriminative stimuli control our behaviours, our behaviour is observably different in the presence or absence of specific discriminatory stimuli
e.g we wouldn’t act the same in a bar and in an office

Through generalisation Discriminative stimuli can be a range of things, such as stimuli, concepts or categories

Question 25

Outline the Law of Effect

Answer 25

Proposed by Thorndike and is the core of instrumental learning Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely Satisfying outcomes “stamp in” the connection between the stimuli and the response. Instrumental behaviours are “controlled” by stimuli with which they are associated– The “discriminative stimulus

Question 26

Outline S-R theories and how they relate to instrumental behaviours

Answer 26

Stimulus-Response (S-R) theories focus on the direct association between stimuli and responses, emphasizing that behavior is a result of external stimuli. This theory posits that behavior can be predicted and controlled by managing the external stimuli Instrumental behaviour only becomes controlled by the situational cues if and only if these cues signal whether the response is going to be reinforced or not

Question 27

what is generalisation and the generalisation gradient?

Answer 27

Generalization occurs when an organism responds in a similar way to different but related stimuli Generalisation gradient: the greater the difference between testing and training cues, the worse performance becomes/the broader the generalisation becomes. If it's too broad, this is not an effective response anymore.

Question 28

what is discrimination? what is discrimination training?

Answer 28

Ability to differentiate between stimuli and respond differently based on which stimulus is present. e.g training an animal to respond only to a specific tone for food, but not to other similar tones through successive discrimination Discrimination Training in behavioural psychology involves teaching an individual to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli. This is achieved by reinforcing a response to one stimulus (the S+) and not reinforcing the same response to another stimulus (the S-).

Question 29

what is the peak shift effect?

Answer 29

The peak shift effect occurs when, after discrimination training, the highest rate of response occurs in response to a stimulus that is further removed from the non-reinforced stimulus than the original reinforced stimulus. This effect shows a shift in the peak of the response rate away from the non-reinforced stimulus.

Question 30

explain how the peak shift effect demonstrates the interaction between generalisation and discrimination with an example.

Answer 30

Discrimination Training: The dog learns to differentiate between the green and red lights and understands that sitting is rewarded in the presence of the green light but not the red light. Generalisation: After discrimination training, the dog also starts to generalise its response to other stimuli similar to the green light. The Peak Shift Effect: animal not only responds to the original green light but responds even more strongly to a new stimulus that is more distinct from the non-reinforced stimulus (the red light) than the original green light. This indicates that the animal is not just learning about the green light but is also learning about the red light, the animal is not just learning what to do but also what to avoid, and any stimulus further from the "avoid" stimulus is seen as even better or safer.

Question 31

explain how stimulus control can be used to manipulate behaviour with an example

Answer 31

we can make a behaviour more or less likely to occur by controlling the cues that trigger it For example, insomnnia treatment involves restoring the association between bed and sleep - reduce all non-pleasureable non-sleep activity away from the bedroom

Question 32

how can we manipulate discriminatory stimuli to change behaviour?

Answer 32

to reduce generalisaiton: in discriminatory training, discriminatory stimuli should be as similar as possible for accurate category formation/expertise: the more exemplars are used in training, the more accuracy in categorising things in new contexts

Question 33

How does Watanabe et al. (1995) relate to discrimination training and generalisation in animal learning?

Answer 33

The study shows discrimination training because pigeons learned to tell apart Monet's and Picasso's paintings through reinforcement (rewarded for correct choices). It demonstrates generalisation because pigeons applied what they learned to new, unseen paintings by the same artists and even grouped similar styles (e.g., other Impressionists or Cubists), showing they responded to broader visual features rather than memorised images.

Question 34

S-R theories suggest that behaviour is a result of direct connections between stimuli and response. what are some of the issues with these theories?

Answer 34

you don't need drive reduction to reinforce behaviour - e.g stimulating arousal is a potent reward, even if there is no ‘consummation' you don't need a reinforcer for learning to occur e.g latent learning

Question 34

outline how repeated S-R parings lead to habitual behaviours that are resistant to change

Answer 34

When the same S-R pair is repeated over time, the response to the stimulus can become automatic or habitual. This means that the behaviour is performed with little to no conscious thought and becomes resistant to change.

Question 35

outline what is meant by contingency learning

Answer 35

Contingency learning is when we learn that our actions cause certain outcomes. key features: Predictability: The learner comes to predict outcomes based on their actions. Contingency: There is a direct link, or contingency, between the action performed and the outcome experienced. High contingency situations are where a specific action reliably leads to a particular outcome.

Question 36

in the light of contingency learning, what is the delta-P rule?

Answer 36

The Delta-P rule posits that the strength of a learned behaviour is related to the difference in the probability of an outcome occurring in the presence of a stimulus versus its absence. Mathematically, this is expressed as: [ \Delta P = P(O \mid S) - P(O \mid \neg S) ] Where: ( P(O \mid S) ) is the probability of the outcome when the stimulus is present. ( P(O \mid \neg S) ) is the probability of the outcome when the stimulus is not present. Implications of the Delta-P Rule: This rule suggests that the greater the difference between these two probabilities, the stronger the associative learning or contingency. A positive Delta-P indicates that the presence of the stimulus increases the likelihood of the outcome, thereby strengthening the behavior. Conversely, a negative or zero Delta-P might imply no learning or a weak association.

Question 37

outline what is meant by outcome devaluation effects

Answer 37

Outcome devaluation occurs when the desirability or value of a reinforcer (outcome) is reduced after an association between a behavior and the outcome has been learned. This can happen through satiation (where a previously desirable outcome becomes less appealing after having too much of it) or by providing information that changes the perceived value of the outcome. Implications of Outcome Devaluation: The effect of outcome devaluation is critical for understanding the flexibility of behavior. It reveals whether a behavior is goal-directed (sensitive to changes in the outcome value) or has become habitual (insensitive to outcome changes). In goal-directed behavior, devaluing the outcome leads to a decrease in the associated behavior, as the behavior is performed with the expectation of obtaining the now devalued outcome. In habitual behavior, the performance of the behavior persists despite the devaluation of the outcome, indicating that the behavior has become automatic and no longer depends on the current value of the outcome.

Question 38

what is the difference between goal-directed learning and habitual behaviour?

Answer 38

Goal-directed behaviors are actions that are performed with an awareness of the relationship between the behavior and its outcome. These behaviors are: Flexible: They adjust based on the current value of their outcomes or goals. Sensitive to Outcome Devaluation: If the value of the outcome changes (as in outcome devaluation), the behavior will change accordingly. Driven by Expectations: The individual has expectations about the consequences of their actions, which guides their behavior. Habitual Behavior: Habitual behaviors, on the other hand, are actions that are performed automatically and repetitively without conscious thought about the outcome. These behaviors are: Rigid: They tend not to change even when the associated outcomes are no longer desirable or relevant. Insensitive to Outcome Devaluation: The behavior persists even if the outcome is devalued, indicating a disconnection between the action and the goal. Driven by Cues: The behavior is triggered by specific cues or contexts rather than by outcomes.

Question 39

explain the effects of amphetamines on behaviour using a study

Answer 39

Amphetamines & Habitual Behaviour Study (Lever-Press Task) 🧪 Setup: Rats trained to: Press Lever 1 (R1) → Reward 1 (O1) Press Lever 2 (R2) → Reward 2 (O2) 💊 Groups: Amphetamine group: 7 days of amphetamine exposure Control group: received vehicle (no drug) Devaluation Phase: Before test: rats given free access to one reward → causes stimulus-specific satiety (i.e. they no longer value that reward) → this devalues that outcome Test Phase: Free choice between both levers No rewards given (extinction test) Rats must recall R-O (response-outcome) links to guide behaviour Results: Control rats (vehicle): Showed sensitivity to outcome devaluation Avoided pressing the lever linked to the devalued reward → Goal-directed behaviour Amphetamine rats: Continued pressing both levers equally Ignored the devaluation → Showed habit-like behaviour Conclusion: Amphetamine exposure increases habit formation Makes behaviour less flexible and less sensitive to changes in reward value

Question 40

outline briefly what is meant by negative reinforcement

Answer 40

response/behaviour stops something bad response increases

Question 41

outline the difference between escape and avoidance using the rat shuttle box study

Answer 41

Escape: learning to perform a behaviour to terminate an unpleasant stim Rat is usually on the one side of the box. The rat will see a 'warning stimulus' (WS) which indicates that the aversive stim (US) is coming. The rat will learn to jump onto the other side of the box to escape the aversive stimulus. This is called escape. Avoidance: learning behaviours to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus before it starts (anticipation) Rats get more used to the experiment, when they see the WS, the rats will jump over to the other side of cage before the aversive stim has even happened. The WS is reinforcing this behaviour because it accurately predicts the aversive stimulus. This is why the rats respond to it consistently. These studies have found that avoidance behaviours are particularly resistant to extinciton.

Question 42

what is meant by the 'paradox of avoidance'? What questions does this raise?

Answer 42

the removal or non-presentation of an aversive stim following a particular behaviour (e.g leaping away) actually reinforces that behaviour --> something that doesn't happen strengthens the behaviour meant to avoid it highlights how behaviours are maintained when the expected punishment or unpleasant stimulus is never actually experienced e.g example, why would an organism continue to perform an avoidance behaviour if they never actually encounter the negative consequence that they are supposedly avoiding (anxiety applications)

Question 43

outline the two-process theory of avoidance

Answer 43

Explains that avoidance behaviours are developed and maintained are maintained by fear. It explains that fear induced by CS (classical conditioning) drives avoidance behaviour, which is then maintained by negative reinforcement (operant conditioning) step 1: classical conditioning NS becomes CS through association of US. The CS then becomes signal for impending shock and now induces fear step 2: operant conditioning behaviour (jumping away) is reinforced by the cessation or avoidance of the shock after the CS is presented. behaviour is negatively reinforced because aversive stim is avoided

Question 44

outline the following about 'safety signals': definition and function: formation: psychological impact: difference from superstitious avoidance:

Answer 44

Definition and Function Definition: Safety signals are cues that predict the non-occurrence of an aversive or threatening event. Function: They function to reduce fear or anxiety by signaling that the environment is safe, thus inhibiting the fear response typically activated by a perceived threat. Formation Classical Conditioning: Safety signals are formed through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with the non-occurrence of an expected aversive stimulus. Over time, this neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned signal of safety. Learning Process: The organism learns to associate the safety signal with the absence of threat, leading to a conditioned response of reduced fear or anxiety when the signal is present. Psychological Impact Reduced Anxiety: The presence of a safety signal can significantly reduce anxiety and stress by providing psychological assurance that no harm will occur. Neurobiological Modulation: Safety signals can modulate activity in brain areas involved in fear and anxiety, such as the amygdala, reducing physiological and emotional responses to fear. Difference from Superstitious Avoidance Basis of Association: Safety signals are based on a true predictive relationship between the signal and the non-occurrence of harm, whereas superstitious avoidance is based on incorrect or coincidental associations that do not actually influence outcomes. Behavioral Reinforcement: Safety signals are reinforced by the true absence of an expected negative outcome, leading to genuine reductions in fear. In contrast, superstititious avoidance behaviors are maintained by the erroneous belief that the behavior itself is preventing a negative outcome.

Question 45

outline the following two treatments of avoidance: systematic desensitisation flooding

Answer 45

Systematic Desensitization Definition: Systematic Desensitization is a gradual, step-by-step process used to help individuals cope with fears and anxieties. Developed by Joseph Wolpe, it combines the principles of classical conditioning and relaxation techniques. Function: The primary function is to replace the fear response associated with a feared object or situation with a relaxation response. Process: Relaxation Training: The person is taught relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation. Creation of Anxiety Hierarchy: The therapist and client develop a list of feared situations, ranked from least to most anxiety-provoking. Gradual Exposure: Starting with the least fearful situation, the person is exposed to these scenarios while practicing relaxation techniques. This exposure is gradual and only moves to more fearful situations once the individual can handle lower levels without significant anxiety. Flooding Definition: Flooding, or 'implosion therapy', involves exposing the person to their most feared stimuli for a prolonged period, without any gradual buildup. Function: The aim is to help the person face their fears directly and learn that the anxiety or fear will naturally decrease over time without any adverse consequences. Process: Full Exposure: Unlike systematic desensitization, flooding involves immediate and sustained exposure to the feared stimulus at its highest intensity. No Escape: The person is not permitted to escape or avoid the fear-inducing stimulus, which helps in extinguishing the fear response. Natural Decline of Fear: The therapy relies on the natural psychological phenomenon of 'habituation', where the fear response diminishes as the person learns that no harmful consequences are following the feared event.

Question 46

What is the fear-avoidance model of chronic pain, and how does it explain the maintenance of pain and disability through avoidance behaviors?

Answer 46

A psychological model explaining how interpreting pain as threatening can trigger a cycle of fear, avoidance, and increased disability. Although avoidance reduces fear short-term, it worsens pain and functioning over time. Key Components: Pain Experience – Initial pain (e.g., injury) Catastrophizing – Exaggerated fear about pain → leads to anxiety Avoidance – Withdrawal from physical/social activity to prevent pain Disability – Physical deconditioning, reduced function, social isolation Pain Persistence – Less activity → increased sensitivity and chronic pain Why is avoidance reinforced? Avoidance provides short-term relief from fear/discomfort → becomes negatively reinforced, increasing the likelihood it will continue. Psychological Effects: ↑ Anxiety ↑ Pain sensitivity (pain feels worse) ↑ Hypervigilance (focus on pain)

Question 47

outline the four conditions needed for punishment to be effective in behaviour modification?

Answer 47

immediacy consistency contingency intensity

Question 48

outline the conditions which punishment can be deemed necessary of unnecessary in behaviour modification

Question 49

outline the importance of alternative behaviours when using punishment

Question 50

outline the risks associated with using punishment

Answer 50

increased anxiety: avoidance behaviour: modelling of aggressive responses:

Question 51

what is non-contingent punishment and how can it lead to learnt helplessness?

Question 52

what is the yerkes-dodson law and how does it relate to the effectiveness of punishment and learning?

Question 53

outline the ethical considerations of using punishments in the following settings: schools therapy parenting

Question 54

outline the difference between associative learning and S-R theories

Answer 54

S-R (Stimulus-Response) theories are a specific form of associative learning where a stimulus automatically triggers a response through repetition, without involving awareness of consequences—like flinching at a loud noise. In contrast, broader associative learning includes both S-R learning and operant conditioning, where behavior is influenced by its outcomes. For example, studying to get a good grade is operant conditioning because the behavior is shaped by reinforcement.

Question 55

What is associative learning?

Answer 55

Associative learning is the broad process by which connections are formed between stimuli or between behaviors and their consequences. It includes classical and operant conditioning.

Question 56

What are S-R theories?

Answer 56

S-R (Stimulus-Response) theories are a subset of associative learning that focus on direct connections between a stimulus and a response, often seen as automatic or reflex-like behaviors strengthened through repetition and reinforcement.

Question 57

How does Thorndike’s Law of Effect relate to S-R theories?

Answer 57

Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes strengthen the connection between stimulus and response, making the behavior more likely to occur again.

Question 58

What does Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory add to the S-R framework?

Answer 58

Hull’s theory suggests that behaviors are reinforced when they reduce biological drives (like hunger or thirst). This means the stimulus (drive) triggers a response that reduces the drive, reinforcing the behavior through the S-R connection.

Question 59

How do Thorndike and Hull’s theories fit into associative learning?

Answer 59

Both explain how S-R connections are strengthened by consequences—Thorndike through satisfying or unpleasant outcomes, and Hull through the reduction of biological drives—highlighting mechanisms that reinforce behavior within associative learning.

Question 60

Give a simple example that illustrates Thorndike’s Law of Effect, Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory, and how they relate to associative learning and S-R theories?

Answer 60

Hull: feeling thirsty (stimulus/drive) leads to drinking water (response), which reduces thirst (drive reduction), reinforcing the behavior. Thorndike: studying hard (response) leads to good grades (positive outcome), reinforcing studying per the Law of Effect.

Question 61

outline what is meant by latent learning and what tolman's research found

Answer 61

Definition: Learning that occurs without reinforcement and isn’t shown until there's a reason to demonstrate it. Not immediately visible — appears later when motivation is introduced. Tolman's research: What: Rats in mazes — explored without rewards Findings: Rats who explored without rewards still learned the maze. When food was introduced, these rats completed the maze faster than others. Conclusion: Rats had developed a "cognitive map" — proof of latent learning.

Question 62

outline problems with the two-factor theory

Answer 62

Assumptions: Classical conditioning (fear) must occur before avoidance learning. Fear motivates and maintains avoidance behaviour. There is a strong link between fear and avoidance. Challenges to the theory: Avoidance can occur without a warning signal (WS) E.g., Sidman (1953) avoidance procedure – no explicit WS present. Avoidance persists even when fear to the WS is low or absent Fear may decline, but avoidance continues. Kamin et al. (1963) Study: Investigated the relationship between fear and avoidance. Used a conditioned suppression test (WS suppression of other behaviour = fear index). Rats tested after 1, 3, 9, or 27 successful avoidance trials. Findings: Well-trained animals continued avoidance. Fear to WS decreased with more training (low suppression). Suggests avoidance can persist even when fear is minimal, though some fear remains.