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Various MCAT Flashcards > Learning, Memory, and Behavior > Flashcards

Learning, Memory, and Behavior Flashcards

1
Q

Non associative Learning

A

Learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events.

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2
Q

What are two types of non associative learning?

A

Habituation and sensitization

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3
Q

Habit

A

Action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic.

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4
Q

Habituation

A

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

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5
Q

Dishabituation

A

The restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation.

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6
Q

Sensitization

A

An increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentations of a stimulus.

Produces a more exaggerated response and is usually temporary and may not result in any type of long term behavior change

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7
Q

Associative learning

A

Process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another.

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8
Q

What are two general categories of associative learning?

A

Classical and operant conditioning

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9
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them.

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10
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell.

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11
Q

Neutral Stimulus

A

A stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in absence of outside interference.

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12
Q

Conditioned Response

A

A previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that has become a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

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13
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present.

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14
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

A response that automatically follows an unconditioned stimulus, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link.

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15
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response automatically, without necessitating learning and conditioning to create the link.

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16
Q

What is the process by which classically conditioned responses are developed and maintained?

A
  1. Acquisition
  2. Extinction
  3. Spontaneous Recovery
  4. Generalization
  5. Discrimination
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17
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

In classical conditioning, a reoccurrence of a previously extinct conditioned response int he presence of a conditioned stimulus. Often occurs after a period of time has passed since the initial extinction of the response.

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18
Q

Extinction

A

In classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

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19
Q

Acquisition

A

In classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response

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20
Q

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

A

Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli

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21
Q

Generalization

A

In classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar that elicit the conditioned response

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22
Q

Taste Aversion

A

A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

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23
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Also known as “instrumental conditioning.”

A form of associative learning based on consequences, in which reward increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency.

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24
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Coined the term “operant conditioning”. Is famous for his Skinner Box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior.

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25
Q

Reinforcement

A

A consequence that INCREASES the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated

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26
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

Reward immediately following the behavior. Tends to increase the frequency of that behavior.

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27
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

The removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior. Tends to increase the frequency of that behavior.

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28
Q

ADD desirable consequence

A

Positive reinforcement

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29
Q

REMOVE unpleasant stimulus

A

Negative reinforcement

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30
Q

What part of the brain is understood to be particularly important in negative conditioning?

A

Amygdala

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31
Q

What part of the brain is understood to be particularly important in positive conditioning?

A

Hippocampus

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32
Q

Primary (or unconditioned) reinforcers

A

Unconditioned consequences that are innately satisfying or desirable; we do not need to learn to see them as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival

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33
Q

Secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers

A

Conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct or indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; these are neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned (must be paired with a primary reinforcer to produce a learned behavior)

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34
Q

Reinforcement Schedule

A

The frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered. Schedules can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval).

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35
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

A

When every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced

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36
Q

Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule

A

When occurrences are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not

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37
Q

Continuous reinforcement will result in ______ behavior acquisition, but will also result in _______ extinction.

A

rapid; rapid

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38
Q

Intermittent reinforcement will result in ______ behavior acquisition, but will also result in _______ to extinction.

A

slower; resistance

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39
Q

List the four important intermittent reinforcement schedules.

A
  1. fixed -ratio
  2. variable -ratio
  3. fixed -interval
  4. variable -interval
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40
Q

Fixed -interval schedule

A

Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set period of time has passed.

Behavior will increase as the reinforcement interval comes to an end.

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41
Q

Fixed -ratio schedule

A

Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior.

Produces a HIGH response rate.

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42
Q

Variable -interval schedule

A

Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable number of occurrences of a behavior.

Produces a SLOW, STEADY behavior response rate

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43
Q

Variable -ratio schedule

A

Reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after an unpredictable time interval

Produces a HIGH response rate; Very Resistant to extinction.

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44
Q

Shaping

A

In operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate, proximal behaviors until a final, desired behavior is achieved.

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45
Q

Punishment

A

In operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

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46
Q

Punishment ______ behavior while reinforcement _____ behavior.

A

decreases; increases

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47
Q

Positive Punishment

A

The introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior. Tends to decrease the likelihood of the behavior.

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48
Q

Negative Punishment

A

The removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior. Tends to decrease the likelihood of the behavior.

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49
Q

ADD undesirable stimulus

A

Positive punishment

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50
Q

REMOVE a positive stimulus

A

Negative punishment

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51
Q

T or F: It is uncommon for punishment to have as much of a lasting effect as reinforcement.

A

True

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52
Q

Escape Learning

A

Through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus.

Stems from NEGATIVE reinforcement.

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53
Q

Avoidance Learning

A

The process by which one learns to perform a behavior order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present.

Stems from NEGATIVE reinforcement.

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54
Q

Behaviorism

A

According to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment. It is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and the environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual’s subsequent behavior and personalities.

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55
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

Tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus response behaviors

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56
Q

Insight Learning

A

Sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

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57
Q

Latent Learning

A

Learning that takes place int he absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred. This learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required.

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58
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Definitions

A

CC: Organisms learn associations between events that they don’t control

OC: Organisms learn associations between behaviors and resulting events

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59
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Response

A

CC: involuntary, automatic

OC: voluntary

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60
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Acquisition

A

CC: Associating two events (stimuli)

OC: Associating response with consequence (reinforcement or punishment)

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61
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Extinction

A

CC: Conditioned response decreases as the conditioned stimulus is continually presented alone

OC: Response decreases without reinforcement

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62
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Spontaneous recovery

A

BOTH: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response but not as strong as the first

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63
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Generalization

A

CC: Response to a stimulus similar (but not identical) to the conditioned stimulus

OC: Response to a similar stimulus is also reinforced

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64
Q

Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning: Discrimination

A

CC: Ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

OC: Learning that certain responses, not others, will be reinforced

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65
Q

T or F: Learning occurs more quickly if it is biologically relevant.

A

True

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66
Q

Short-term memory

A

Memory that is limited in duration and capacity (lasts for seconds to hours)

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67
Q

Long-term memory

A

Information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have infinite capacity

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68
Q

Consolidation

A

Information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have infinite capacity

69
Q

Long-term Potentiation

A

A persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation. Leads to increase sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated. Believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term to long term memory.

70
Q

Innate

A

Having from birth; occurring naturally rather than being learned.

71
Q

Observational learning (or vicarious, social learning)

A

A type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person’s behavior and its consequences thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations

72
Q

Modeling

A

Mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person. This model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the behavior.

73
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Considered a pioneer in the field of observational learning, is famous for his Bobo Doll experiment. Also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning

74
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another. May be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy

75
Q

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A

Joel that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument.

76
Q

List the three key elements that have an impact on a message’s persuasiveness.

A
  1. Message characteristics (features of the message itself)
  2. Source characteristics (person/venue delivering the message)
  3. Target characteristics (person receiving the message)
77
Q

The two cognitive routes that persuasion follows under the elaboration likelihood model are the _______ route and the _______ route.

A

central; peripheral

78
Q

Central Route

A

Cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument

More likely to have LONGER-lasting persuasive outcomes.

79
Q

Peripheral Route

A

Cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator

80
Q

People will choose the _____ route only when they are both motivated to listen to the logic of the argument and they are not distracted.

A

Central

81
Q

Social Cognitive Perspective

A

According to this perspective, personality formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors.

82
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

A reciprocal interaction between a person’s behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality) and environmental factors.

83
Q

Behavioral Genetics

A

Study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual’s personality and behaviors.

Seeks to understand how the GENOTYPE and environment affect the PHENOTYPE.

84
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism

85
Q

Phenotype

A

The observable characteristics and traits of an organism

86
Q

What are the two types of studies used by behavioral genetics?

A

Twin studies and adoption studies

87
Q

Transgenesis

A

The introduction of a gene or genes into animal or plant cells, which leads to the transmission of the input gene (transgene) to successive generations

88
Q

Temperament

A

Dispositional emotional excitability. Tends to be fairly stable through the life span.

89
Q

General Intelligence

A

Foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities

90
Q

Intellectual disability (Mental retardation)

A

Classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives

91
Q

Reflex

A

Auomatic behaviors that occur without thinking; are considered primitive because they originate int he CNS and are exhibited by all norma infants.

92
Q

Moro (startle) reflex

A

In response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle; the baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in.

Present at birth - about 6 months

93
Q

Rooting Reflex

A

A baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

94
Q

Sucking Reflex

A

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed on roof of mouth

95
Q

Babinski Reflex

A

In response to sole of the foot being touched, dorsiflexion of large toe and fanning of other toes

96
Q

Tonic Neck Reflex

A

The head is turned to one side, the arm and leg are extended on the same side and the opposite arm and leg are flexed in a “fencing” position

Last about 6-7 months

97
Q

Palmar Grasp Reflex

A

Reflexive curling of the infant’s fingers around an object that touches its palm

98
Q

Walking/Stepping Reflex

A

In response to the soles of the baby’s feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other

Disappears at about 6 weeks and reappears at about 8-12 months

99
Q

List the course of motor development throughout a lifetime.

A

0-1 years: Reflexive movement
0-2 years: Rudimentary movement
2-7 years: Fundamental movement
7-14 years: Specialized movement
14+ years: Application of movement

100
Q

Rudimentary movements

A

First voluntary movements performed by a child

101
Q

Fundamental movements

A

Child learning to manipulate his body through actions. This stage is highly influenced by the environment.

102
Q

Specialized movements

A

Are mature fundamental movement patterns that have been refined and combined to form sport skills and other specific and complex movement skills.

103
Q

From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid growth occurs in the _______ _______, corresponding to an increase in rational planning and attention. The _______ ______ linked with thinking, memory, and language, are the last cortical areas to develop.

A

Frontal lobes; association areas

104
Q

Maturation

A

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

105
Q

The development of the _______ is a necessary precursor to walking.

A

Cerebellum

106
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

A lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years. While people are unable to recall memories from his part, learning and memory do still occur.

107
Q

Stranger anxiety

A

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

108
Q

Harry and Margret Harlow

A

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort (“contact comfort”) rather than simply food. Also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits.

109
Q

Mary Ainsworth

A

Famous for her “strange situation experiments” where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how thy would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants.

110
Q

Secure Attachment

A

(Ainsworth) Attachment style where infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened. These infants are upset but consolable once mother left and returned.

111
Q

Insecure Attachment

A

Infants are wary of exploring the environment and resist or avoid the mother when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation

112
Q

_______ _______ forms when an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs and _______ ________ forms when infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs.

A

Secure attachment; insecure attachment

113
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

(Baumrind) A restrictive punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and effort. These parents places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange. This parent is associated with children’s social incompetence and often relies on punishment.

114
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

(Baumrind) A style that encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on children’s actions; extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, are parents are warm and nurturant toward the child.

115
Q

Permissive parenting

A

(Baumrind) Style of parenting marked by submitting to children’s desires, making few demands, and using little punishment

116
Q

Adolescence

A

A developmental period beginning at puberty and ending (less clearly) at adulthood.

117
Q

During adolescence the brain undergoes 3 major changes. These are…

A
  1. Cell proliferation (in prefrontal lobes, limbic system)
  2. Synaptic pruning
  3. Myelination
118
Q

Encoding

A

The process of transferring sensory information into the memory system

119
Q

Working Memory

A

Short-term memory for information in immediate awareness (information is kept temporarily for a particular mental activity); it is limited to about 7 digits

120
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

The ability to recall items from a list depends on order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle

121
Q

Primacy Effect

A

Tendency to recall the first items on the list more readily than those in the middle

122
Q

Recency Effect

A

Tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

123
Q

Mnemonic

A

Any memory technique use to promote the retention and retrieval of information

124
Q

Rehearsal

A

Technique of repeating verbal information in one’s phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory

125
Q

Chunking

A

Memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall.

126
Q

Depth of Processing

A

The idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

127
Q

_________ information (meaning) is more easily remembered than _________ information (form) when the goal is to learn a concept.

A

semantic; grammatical

128
Q

Dual coding hypothesis

A

A hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

129
Q

Method of Loci

A

A memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered

130
Q

Self-Reference Effect

A

The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves; makes new information personally relevant by relating it to existing information

131
Q

Sensory Memory

A

The initial recording of sensory information int he memory system; is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays

132
Q

What are the two types of sensory memory?

A
  1. Iconic memory
  2. Echoic memory
133
Q

Echoic memory

A

Memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

134
Q

Iconic memory

A

The brief photographic memory visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second

135
Q

Information from sensory memory decays rapidly if it is not passed through ______ ______ into short-term memory.

A

Broadbent’s filter

136
Q

Short-term memory, which is strongly correlated with the _________, is where new information sought to be remembered resides ________ and is then encoded to long-term memory or forgotten.

A

hippocampus; temporarily

137
Q

Working memory, which is strongly correlated with the _______ _______, is a storage bin to hold memories (short term or long term) that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve a problem.

A

prefrontal cortex

138
Q

Implicit (procedural) memory

A

Memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something

139
Q

Explicit (declarative) memory

A

Memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge

140
Q

Long term memory has two subdivisions which are ______ memory and ______ memory. Declarative memory further divides into _______ memory and _______ memory. Non declarative memory further divides into _______ memory.

A

Explicit; implicit; explicit; semantic; procedural

141
Q

Semantic memory

A

Memory for factual information

142
Q

Episodic memory

A

Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance

143
Q

T or F: Episodic memory deteriorates before semantic memory.

A

False; Semantic memory deteriorates before episodic

144
Q

The ________ is necessary for the encoding of new explicit memories.

A

Hippocampus

145
Q

The ________ is involved in learning new skills and conditioned associations (implicit memory).

A

Cerebellum

146
Q

The _______ is involved in associating emotion in memories, particularly negative memories.

A

Amygdala

147
Q

Response Threshold

A

The quantity of information, or quantity of activation, needed in order to trigger a response.

148
Q

Spreading Activation Theory

A

A theory of information retrieval that involves a search process where specific nodes are activated, which leads to the activation of related nodes, which leads to the activation of related nodes, and so on.

149
Q

A node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbors theater strong enough to reach a ________ ________.

A

Response Threshold

150
Q

The effect of input signals is _______: the response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes.

A

Cumulative

151
Q

Recall

A

Retrieving information from memory

152
Q

Free Recall

A

Reproducing information from memory in any order without the assistance of cues.

153
Q

Cued Recall

A

Reproducing information from memory by making use of some kind of aid or hint to assist retrieval.

154
Q

Recognition

A

Retrieving information from memory with the use of cues

155
Q

Relearning

A

The process of learning material that was already learned

156
Q

Priming

A

An effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus “primes” or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus

157
Q

Mood-dependent Memory

A

When learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

158
Q

Prospective Memory

A

Remembering to do something in the future

159
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Inability to form new memories

160
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded

161
Q

Retention Interval

A

The amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled

162
Q

Proactive Interference

A

A type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with he recall of information learned more recently

163
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

A type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the real of information learned previously

164
Q

Positive Transfer

A

When old information facilitates the learning of new information

165
Q

Schema

A

Mental framework or blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

166
Q

Misinformation Effect

A

A tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the event

167
Q

False Memories

A

Inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination or suggestion

168
Q

Source Monitoring Error

A

A specific type of recollection where a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source

169
Q

Neural Plasticity

A

A process that refers to the malleability of the brian’s pathways and synapses based on behavior, the environment, and neural processes

Various MCAT Flashcards (5 decks)

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