Learning Theories Flashcards
1
Q
Define Classical Conditioning
A
Learning by association; when two stimuli are repeatedly paired with one another, an individual learns to associate one stimulus to another
2
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus
A
Something that triggers a natural reaction
3
Q
What is an unconditioned response
A
A natural response which does not need to be learnt
4
Q
What is a neutral stimulus
A
Something that doesn’t normally trigger a reaction
5
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus
A
Something that triggers a learnt response
6
Q
What is a conditioned response
A
A response which has been learnt through association
7
Q
What is Spontaneous Recovery
A
Following the extinction of the Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Response, the conditioned response will appear again
8
Q
What is stimulus generalisation?
A
Once animals are conditioned they will respond to other stimuli that are similar, like any tin opened makes a cat enter the kitchen.
9
Q
Define Timing in the context of classical conditioning
A
If the Neutral Stimulus can’t be used to predict the Unconditioned Stimulus, then conditioning will not occur
10
Q
What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning
A
The Conditioned Response isn’t permanent. A few presentations of Conditioned Stimulus in the absence of the Unconditioned Stimulus loses the ability to produce a conditioned response.
11
Q
What were the aims of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning?
A
To find out if a reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations through learning
12
Q
What was the IV and DV of Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning experiment?
A
IV: The ringing of the bell; whether it is ringing or not
DV: the number of drops of saliva produced by the dogs
13
Q
What was the methodology of Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning experiment?
A
Repeated measures design, as it studies the same dogs before and after their conditioning
14
Q
What was the procedure for Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning?
A
- Dog was placed in a sealed room with no exposure to other stimuli, this was a controlled measure to prevent other situational variables from making the dog salivate.
- The dog was strapped into a harness to stop it from moving and the mouth was surgically linked to a tube that drained saliva away into a measuring bottle.
- The sound of a metronome was paired with the presentation of food to the dog which caused salivation. This paired association was repeated 20 times.
- After the dog was conditioned, Pavlov presented the dog with the sound of the metronome but no food and the number of drops of saliva were counted and collected in the measuring bottle.
15
Q
What was the sample for Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning?
A
35 dogs of a variety of breeds, raised in kennels in the laboratory
16
Q
What were the results of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning?
A
- Pavlov found that the conditioned dog started to salivate 9 seconds after hearing the sound and, by 45 seconds - 11 drops of saliva were produced.
- Secondary conditioning can also occur if the first CS (metronome) causing the CR salivation is paired with another neutral stimulus (buzzer).
17
Q
What were the conclusions of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning?
A
- Pavlov discovered Classical Conditioning.
- Stimulus generalisation takes place when an organism responds to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus. For example, Pavlov’s dogs began to salivate in response to another type of sound (doorbell/ wind chime) that has a similar tone to the metronome even though the dog was never directly conditioned to respond to those specific instruments.
18
Q
Evaluate the generalisability of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
- Dogs have a much less complex CNS and anatomical brain structure than humans
- Humans are not as strongly motivated by food all of the time; different motives
19
Q
Evaluate the reliability of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
+ Pavlov repeated this standardised experiment, with the dog harnessed and saliva volumes measured after 20 UCS (food) + NS (metronome) pairings.
+ Pavlov repeated the study multiple times over 25 years with different dogs and stimuli
+ Got different researchers to observe the dog and measure the saliva
+Many variations including a buzzer and whistle were used, therefore test-retest can determine if results are consistent
20
Q
Evaluate the applications of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
+ His conclusions are used in programs for changing human behaviour
+ Aversion therapy
+ Systematic desensitisation
+ Flooding therapy
+ For example, in Aversion therapy alcoholics are given Antabuse a drug, causing nausea and vomiting if they consume alcohol
21
Q
What is Systematic Desensitisation
A
Treats phobias/anxiety disorders. Involves counterconditioning, where the patient is graudally exposed to feared stimuli from the least to most feared in ranking.
22
Q
Evaluate the ecological validity of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
-Low because an artificial laboratory environment was used for example dogs were bred in the laboratory, and harnessed in place so stimuli and responses were isolated, therefore ‘real-life’ behaviours were not being observed
- Low mundane realism
23
Q
Evaluate the internal validity of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
+ Carefully controlled setting makes his findings objective and scientifically credible due to the lack of extraneous variables
+ Quantitative data was collected, e.g. the number of drops o saliva, which increases the scientific internal validity because cause and effect can clearly be established
24
Q
Evaluate the ethics of Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning
A
- The dogs were surgically implanted with a catheter/ measuring bottle into salivatory glands and kept in a sealed room.
- No BPS ethical guidelines were established in 1927 (first introduced in 1947), however, the study does not abide by the current ethical standard of ‘Refinement’ in the Scientific Procedures Act of 1986)
25
What is Aversion Therapy?
- A form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behaviour in order to extinguish the behaviour.
- For example, in Aversion therapy alcoholics are given Antabuse a drug, causing nausea and vomiting if they consume alcohol
- Homosexuality was ‘treated’ 50 years ago by electrocuting or giving gay people medication which caused them to feel nauseous and vomit whilst they were shown homosexual images which prompted sexual arousal.
26
What is Flooding Therapy?
- People with phobias are not allowed to avoid their fear, they must face it head on by being immersed in it.
- Initially the client will experience full fear (e.g. Sweating, heart racing etc).
- The body cannot maintain this high level of arousal so the symptoms (heart rate, dizziness, etc) will subside and they will feel relaxed.
- A new association is then formed between feeling relaxed and the feared object/situation.
27
What were the aims of Watson and Raynor's study?
1. To investigate if classical conditioning can be generalised to human behaviour by conditioning the fear response in to a 9 month old baby
2. To investigate if stimulus generalisation occurs in humans to cause the fear response by other stimuli similar to the white rat.
28
What was the IV and DV of Watson and Raynor's study?
IV:
1. Before conditioning compared with after conditioning
2. Being presented with the white rats compared to being presented with other fluffy, white animals/objects
DV:
The number of fearful behaviours Albert shows when presented with the stimuli.
29
What was the methodology of Watson & Raynor's study?
Repeated measures design, since they studied Albert before and after his conditioning, and since Albert experiences every condition
30
Describe the sample of Watson & Raynor's study?
- 1 male 9 month old baby Little Albert, conditioning experiments started at age 11 months.
- Little Albert was chosen because he was healthy and ‘fearless’.
- Opportunity sampling
31
What was the procedure of Watson & Raynor's study?
1. Little Albert was presented with a range of animals and objects to test his fears and identify a neutral stimulus. A white rat was chosen as NS which Little Albert was NOT fearful of.
2. Little Albert was tested for an innate fear response by striking a hammer on a steel bar which caused him to cry. The noise from the hammer banging a steel bar is the UCS and fearful crying is the UCR.
3. Little Albert was conditioned at 11 months old, the white rat was presented paired with the striking of a hammer and steel bar 3 times. The NS and UCS to UCR pairing occurred 7 times.
4. This procedure was repeated a week later. Little Albert was then presented with the white rat without the iron bar noise causing him to cry.
5. A week later, Little Albert was tested for stimulus generalisation by observing his fearful behaviours towards a rabbit, a dog and Watson wearing a Santa mask.
6. 5 days later, they transferred him to a brighter room with more people present.
7. Brought him back 31 days later - to see if the associations lasted through time.
32
What were the conclusions of Watson & Raynor's study?
1. The fear response can be conditioned into humans using Classical Conditioning. This supports the generalisation of Pavlov's research with dogs to humans.
2. Stimulus generalisation and transferal of response is observed in humans.
3. 31 days after all tests, Little Albert still demonstrated all the same conditioned responses, so Watson proposed that conditioned fear would last a lifetime.
33
Evaluate the generalisability of Watson & Raynor's study
- Only 1 participant: a 9-month old baby
- Unrepresentative sample
- Age and gender not considered in the experiment
- After his death he was confirmed to have a brain disorder (hydrocephalus), so the findings may not be applicable to other children who don't have neurological issues
34
Evaluate the reliability of Watson & Raynor's study
+ Standardised procedures
+ The pairing of the unconditioned stimulus (hitting steel bar with hammer 3 times) and the neutral stimulus happened 7 times
+ Easy to replicate and check for consistency
35
Evaluate the applications of Watson & Raynor's study
+ Treatment of phobias, e.g. flooding therapy
+ Extreme behavioural therapy where the subject is exposed to the most intense situation immediately for an extended amount of time
+ This confirms that the fear response following the unconditioned stimulus generates a conditioned response, in this case curing the phobia
36
Evaluate the validity of Watson & Raynor's study
- Low ecological validity
- Low task validity; hearing a steel bar being hit by a hammer 3 times
- Laboratory experiment; dark room is not reflective of real life
37
Evaluate the ethics of Watson & Raynor's study
- Little Albert developed a phobia that could potentially last a lifetime (as seen by the phobia still being present after 31 days).
- This means that Little Albert was subject to psychological harm, as seen by his distressed response (crying and moving away)
38
Define Operant Conditioning
A form of learning where voluntary behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
39
What is the ABC model?
- It proposes that behaviour is based on Antecedents which cause an organism to perform a particular behaviour which has consequences
- To change the behaviour, it is easier to change the consequences rather than the antecedent
40
Define Reinforcement
When the desired behaviour is rewarded with pleasant consequences, making it more likely to be repeated
41
Define Positive Reinforcement
Rewarding the desired behaviour by adding something pleasant
Example: giving someone a compliment if they do well in an exam
42
Define Negative Reinforcement
Rewarding the desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant
Example: Stopping criticism if they do well in an exam
43
Define Primary Reinforcement
When the reward is a basic need which we desire, such as food
Example: Food
44
Define Secondary Reinforcement
When the reward is something that can satisfy a basic need but it is not itself a basic need.
Example: Money to buy food
45
Define Punishment
When the undesired behaviour is punished with unpleasant consequences, making it less likely to be repeated
46
Define Positive Punishment
Punishing the undesired behaviour by adding something unpleasant
Example: Detention when a student misbehaves
47
Define Negative Punishment
Punishing the undesired behaviour by removing something pleasant
Example: No pocket money allowance when a student misbehaves
48
Describe Skinner's Box Experiment
Skinner took a rat/pigeon starved to 75% of its natural body weight and put it in a box, where there was a lever that could be pressed to deliver a food pellet to the animal. Skinner would leave the animal in the box and measure how frequently the animal pressed the lever over time.
49
What were the results of Skinner's Box Experiment
Positive Reinforcement:
- Animal accidentally presses the lever causing a food pellet to be released. Rat learns pressing the lever results in the pleasant consequence of a food pellet and is more likely to repeat this behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement:
- Animal is exposed to an unpleasant electric current causing discomfort and the rat rapidly moves around in the box. The rat accidentally hits the lever and electric current stops.
Therefore the behaviour that is reinforced will be repeated.
50
Describe continuous reinforcement
The consequence (reinforcement) occurs every time the behaviour occurs)
Learning is fast
Extinction is fast
51
Describe partial reinforcement
The consequence only occurs some of the time the behaviour occurs
Learning is medium
Extinction is medium
52
Describe fixed interval reinforcement
There is a fixed time for the reinforcement, e.g. every 10 seconds
Learning is medium
Extinction is medium
53
Describe variable interval reinforcement
There is a variable time for the reinforcement, e.g. every 1 minute followed by every 2 minutes followed by every 5 minutes.
Learning is fast
Extinction is slow
54
Describe fixed ratio reinforcement
The number of behaviours observed for the reward is always a set number, e.g. 5 presses of a button results in a reward
Learning is fast
Extinction is medium
55
Describe variable ratio reinforcement
The number of behaviours observed for the reinforcement is variable. e.g. 2 presses = reward, 5 presses = reward, etc.
Learning is fast
Extinction is slow
56
Describe Social Learning Theory
It assumes that behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of a role model that the individual identifies with
57
Define Vicarious Reinforcement
Learning through observation of the consequences of other people's actions
58
Define Role Model
Someone that the observer identifies with, e.g. similar appearance, gender, interests
59
What are Mediational Processes
A person's mental processes
60
Define the process of attention in Social Learning Theory
Concentration on information that the role model produces
61
Define the process of retention in Social Learning Theory
Retaining the observed behaviour in the memory to be remembered
62
Define the process of motor reproduction in Social Learning Theory
Making a judgment to determine whether you have the capacity to physically reproduce the behaviour
63
Define the process of motivation in Social Learning Theory
Having a reason to carry out the behaviour, e.g. a reward
64
What are the 4 processes in Social Learning Theory
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation
65
Evaluate the strengths of Social Learning Theory
+ Supported by Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
+ Girls copied 5.5 aggressive behaviours if the model was female and 7.2 if the model was male
+ Boys copied 12.4 aggressive behaviours if the model was female and 25.8 if the model was male
66
Evaluate the credibility of Social Learning Theory
- Mediational processes = not objective = not empirical
- Low scientific credibility
67
Evaluate the other explanations of Social Learning Theory
- Focuses on how individuals learn from their environment (role models) which can be deemed as nurture; there is no genetic evaluation
- Reductionist as it doesn't take into account the influence of the human genome
68
Evaluate the debates of Social Learning Theory
+ Could be deemed as more holistic than Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
+ Incorporates more fields of psychology like social (dealing with social interactions between observer and role model) and cognitive (stimulus response)
+ Others focus only on Learning Theories
69
Evaluate the applications of Social Learning Theory
+ Censorship in the media
+ Phobias
+ Token Economy (vicarious reinforcement)
70
What were the aims of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment
1. Investigate the impact of adult role models on children's aggressive behaviour
2. Investigate whether there are any gender differences
71
What was the IV and DV of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment
IV:
- Observing an aggressive or non-aggressive role model
- Whether the role model is the same or opposite sex as the child
DV:
- Number of verbal and physical aggressive behaviours the children imitated
72
What was the methodology of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment
- Laboratory experiment
- Matched pairs for age, gender and pre-tests for initial aggressive behaviours
73
Describe the sample of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment
- 72 children (3-6 years)
- 36 boys, 36 girls, Stanford University Nursery School
- 1 Male, 1 female role model
Control: 24 with no role model
Condition 1: 24 with aggressive role model
Condition 2: 24 with non-aggressive role model
74
Describe the procedure of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment
Stage 1: Modelling – 10 mins
- Non-aggressive condition: the role model assembled tinker-toys in a quiet subdued manner, ignoring the Bobo doll
- Aggressive condition: the role model assembled tinker toys for 1 minute then, laid down the Bobo doll on the side, repeatedly punching it on the nose. Role model hit the Bobo doll with the mallet and kicked it around the room. This was repeated 3 times for a total of 10 minutes with verbal aggression in-between, shouting, 'Hit him down', 'Kick him' and 'He keeps coming back for more'.
Stage 2: AROUSAL ROOM
All children taken to a different experimental room away from the main nursery school building, giving the children the impression they are no longer at nursery school.
All children were told by the experimenter that they could not play with the toys which were now reserved for other children. Thus was to control the emotion in the children (frustration)
Stage 3:
- All children were exposed to aggressive toys (mallet, Bobo doll, guns) and non-aggressive toys (cars, tea sets) for 20 minutes and their behaviour was observed through a one-way mirror. Time sampled (5-second interval) observations for 20 minutes
2 judges indepedently rated each child on the number of
- Imitative verbal aggression ('Hit him/Kick him/He keeps coming back for more')
- Imitative physical aggression (sits/punches/kicks/hits the Bobo doll with a mallet)
- Aggressive gun-play ('aiming and shooting' the gun)
- Non-imitative aggression
75
What were the results of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment?
- Verbal aggression is higher if its modelled by someone of the same sex (13.7 for female subjects with female role model, compared to 4.3 for males with female role model)
- Male subjects were more physically aggressive regardless of the sex of the role model (7.2 for females and 25.8 for males with a male role model)
76
What were the conclusions of Bandura's 1961 original Bobo Doll experiment?
1. Children learn aggressive behaviours from role models through the process of observation and imitation
2. Boys are more likely to imitate aggression compared to girls, especially physical
3. Boys are more likely to copy same-sex role models compared to girls
77
What were the aims of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment
To see whether a child would be more aggressive if they were shown a realistic model in a film, an unrealistic model in a cartoon, or a real person
78
What was the IV and DV of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment?
IV:
1. Whether the person was shown a realistic model on TV, a cartoon, or a real person
2. Whether the model was the same sex or a different sex as the child
DV:
- The number of verbal and physical aggressive behaviours that children imitated
79
What was the methodology of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment?
Laboratory experiment and a naturalistic experiment (because the children's gender was naturally occurring)
80
Describe the sample of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment
- 96 children from Stanford University Nursery School
- 48 girls, 48 boys
- 3-5 years old
- Opportunity sample
81
Describe the procedure of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment
1. Model Room:
- Children played with finger paints and stickers and observed the role model
2. Arousal Room
3. Observation
4. Film Model (extra condition)
- Children watched a film in which the female adult model was dressed as a cartoon cat while following the script with the Bobo Doll
82
Describe the results of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment
- The mean number of imitative aggressive behaviours displayed in the filmed human condition was 92 compared to a mean of 99 for filmed cartoon aggression.
- The mean number of imitative aggressive behaviours displayed in the control group was significantly lower than the experimental groups, with a mean of only 54 acts
83
What were the conclusions of Bandura's 1963 Filmed Doll experiment
- Bandura concluded that the children will imitate filmed aggression in the same way as live aggressive role models
- Watching filmed violence is not cathartic. Instead of becoming less aggressive after watching aggressive films or cartoons, the children showed more aggression
84
What were the aims of Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment
To find out whether reinforcement and punishment of an aggressive model would influence the aggression displayed
85
What was the IV and DV of Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment?
IV:
1. Observed consequence for the model
2. Whether the role model was the same sex or opposite sex to the child
3. Whether the child received no incentive or a positive incentive
DV:
The number of verbal and physical aggressive behaviours that the children imitated
86
What was the methodology of Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment?
Laboratory Experiment
87
Describe the sample for Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment
- Opportunity Sample
- 66 Participants (Children)
- 33 boys and 33 girls aged 3-5
- Recruited from the Stanford University Nursery School
88
Describe the procedure for Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment
The procedure was the same
* Random allocation to 3 conditions after all participants watched a film of an adult aggressing towards a Bobo doll:
1. Model-rewarded: they saw another adult praise the model for aggression and give them either a drink or a chocolate
2. Model-punished: they saw a second adult scold the model and spanked them with a magazine
3. No consequence
* Children were then deliberately frustrated and taken to a playroom
* All groups were later offered attractive rewards to aggress towards the doll
89
Describe the results for Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment
* The children in the model-punished condition were significantly less aggressive
* Introducing the promise of a reward wiped out the difference, increasing the scores significantly for all groups
* The model reward condition had the same mean imitation for girls (2.8) and for boys (3.5) as the no consequences model
* Punishment model had far less imitation from girl (0.5)
* Introducing a positive incentive significantly increased imitation from boys and girls with scores above 3
90
What were the conclusions of Bandura's 1965 Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment
1. Children will be less likely to imitate role models who are punished
2. No consequences model showed that behaviour doesn’t need to be rewarded to be imitated
3. Incentives outweigh punishments as when children were offered incentives even when a punishment was presented, they showed they had learnt aggressive behaviours
4. Females are more disincentivised to perform a behaviour when a punishment is modelled
91
Evaluate the generalisability of Bandura's original Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
- All 72 children from Stanford University Nursery school, which is in the US = individualistic culture
- All from the same age group (mean age of 52 months)
- Unrepresentative sample
92
Evaluate the reliability of Bandura's original Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
+ Standardised procedures
+ Each child spent the same amount of time in each stage (10 min modelling, and 20 mins observation)
+ 2 judges independently rated each child, therefore the inter-rater reliability is high
+ Easy to replicate and check for consistency
93
Evaluate the applications of Bandura's original Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
+ The conclusion that children will imitate aggressive role models can be applied to parenting; if parents want their children to be gentle and well-behaved, they should be kept away from aggressive role models.
94
Evaluate the validity of Bandura's original Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
- The Bobo Doll is designed to be knocked over, which could lead to demand characteristics
- The study only investigate the role of social learning on behaviour and ignores that their are biological factors that influence aggression, therefore cause & effect cannot be clearly established.
95
Evaluate the ethics of Bandura's original Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
- Children may have been distressed because they were exposed to a role model using verbal and physical abuse, which they could have observed and imitated after they left the study.
BPS Guideline: 'normalising unhelpful behaviours'
96
Evaluate the generalisability of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
- Not representative
- 96 children (48 boys and 48 girls) with a mean age of 52 months all were enrolled at the prestigious Stanford University Nursery School
97
Evaluate the reliability of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
+ Standardised procedures
+ Sequence of aggressive acts repeated 3 times
+ Same verbally aggressive responses from role models
+ Standardised script, same role models used, systematic timings
+ Inter-rater reliability
98
Evaluate the applications of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
+ Application to TV censorship
+ Watershed can be used as a dividing line to separate adult and children's TV shows, e.g. only broadcasting adult TV shows between 9pm-5:30 am to reduce children's exposure to antisocial behaviour in the media
99
Evaluate the internal validity of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
- Quantitative data = objective, but lacked depth and insight
- Mean results for observing a live (83), film (92) or cartoon model (99) however all three express significantly higher aggressive behaviours than the control of no model
- Utilising the mean number of pre-determined behaviours decreases subjectivity so that the data collected is accurate with high internal validity
100
Evaluate the ecological validity of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
- Artifical environment; lab experiment
- Not their normal environment
- They had never seen a bobo doll before } demand characteristics
101
Evaluate the ethics of Bandura's Filmed Bobo Doll experiment (1963)
- Children were distressed and exposed to physical and verbal abuse
- Could manifest as a long-term behavioural disorder
- Limited evidence that there was an attempt to debrief the children
102
Evaluate the generalisability of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
- Not representative
- 66 children (33 boys and 33 girls) with a mean age of 51 months all were enrolled at the prestigious Stanford University Nursery School
103
Evaluate the reliability of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
+ Standardised
+ Each watched a 5 minute demonstration where the role model said the same verbally aggressive phrases
+ Same script read-aloud
+ Inter-rater reliability
104
Evaluate the applications of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
+ Evidence for the observation and imitation of celebrity role models in society, which is resulting in a higher prevalence of eating disorders like AN in the Western World
+ Children's learning; the conclusion that they will imitate aggression
105
Evaluate the internal validity of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
- Bobo doll is designed to be kicked over, which could lead to demand characteristics
- Ignored the biological explanations for aggression, e.g. brain structure (Raine et al.) or hormones (Chester et al.)
106
Evaluate the ecological validity of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
- Low task validity
- Low mundane realism
- Artificial setting
- Behaviour might not reflect real life
107
Evaluate the ethics of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll experiment (1965)
- Children may have been distressed by the aggressive behaviour they witnessed
- There seems to have been limited effort to debrief participants
108
What is a phobia?
An irrational fear of an object or situation
109
How are phobias acquired through classical conditioning?
- An unconditioned stimulus brings about an instinctive response - in the case of phobias this is a fear response
- Learning via association occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, producing the unconditioned fear response
- The person learns to associate this neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response, meaning the neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus, which brings about a conditioned response
- Stimulus generalisation occurs,
110
How are phobias maintained through operant conditioning?
- Avoiding the feared object/situation brings relief, which is rewarding, so it acts as positive reinforcement
- Avoiding the feared object/situation relieves anxiety, which acts as negative reinforcement
- If a situation/cannot cannot be avoided, anxiety is caused, which is the positive punishment
111
Outline flooding as a treatment for phobias
1. Patient is placed in a safe environment and confronted with their fears
2. Anxiety and distress are experienced for a prolonged period of time
3. The client will initially experience full fear, but the body cannot maintain this high level of arousal, so the symptoms will subside and they will feel relaxed
4. A new association is formed between feeling relaxed in the presence of the object/situation
Flooding can take place in-vitro or in-vivo, or as implosion therapy (patient simply imagines)
112
Evaluate the strengths of flooding as a treatment for phobias
+ Wolpe (1969) forced an adolescent girl with a fear of cars to be driven around continuously for four hours. Her anxiety resulted in hospitalisation but her fear was extinguished.
113
Evaluate the credibility of flooding as a treatment for phobias
- Flooding is not ethical as patients are exposed to distress and anxiety for a prolonged period of time. Their right to withdraw isn't exercised. Not useful if the patient has multiple psychiatric disorders (co-morbidity)
114
Evaluate the other explanations of flooding as a treatment for phobias
- Might not be useful for people who have phobias that have a cognitive or unconscious cause. Freud explained phobias in terms of displacement, saying that a person experiences anxiety from a complex situation which is hard to deal with, and they cope with it by unconsciously displacing their anxiety onto a simpler object/situation.
115
Evaluate the debates and applications of flooding as a treatment for phobias
+ Flooding is cost-effective. It is a quicker process that SD. Usually patients only require a few treatments, making it more suitable and affordable for a range of patients.
+ Marks (1987) found that people with a specific phobia can lose their fear after only three sessions of flooding
116
Outline systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
1. The patient and therapist discuss the nature of the phobias, like the triggers
2. The patient is given relaxation techniques through drugs, hypnosis, muscle control, breathing techniques and meditation
3. The patient and therapist create a hierarchy of fears, most least to most fearful situation
4. Patient works through the stages of the hierarchy, replacing anxiety with relaxation techniques at each stage
117
Evaluate the strengths of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
Capafons et al (1998) used Systematic Desensitisation based on classical conditioning to effectively treat patients with a phobia of flying
- However, it didn't work on every individual, so further research is required
118
Evaluate the credibility of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
- Systematic Desensitisation can lack ecological validity if virtual reality or hypnosis is used for the patient to 'imagine' the feared situation.
- Wolitzky-Taylor found that in-vivo exposure therapy is more effective than in-vitro.
119
Evaluate the other explanations of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
- People with social phobia not only experience an anxiety response, but they have unpleasant thoughts about the situation, therefore a cognitive approach to therapy to tackle irrational thoughts may be more appropriate than systematic desensitisation.
- Toozandehjani et al found that the effects of SD did not last more than 3 months when used for social phobia.
120
Evaluate the debates and applications of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
- Relies on the patient being motivated to engage in the therapy, which isn't always the case for some patients.
- The process of creating an anxiety hierarchy requires motivation and effort.
121
Outline the aim of Becker's study
To investigate the impact of prolonged exposure to TV on disordered eating attitudes and behaviours among media-naive indigenous Fijian adolescent girls
122
What was the sample of Becker's study?
- 2 sets of participants in 1995 and 1998
- Matched pairs design
1995: 63 pps, mean age 17.3 years old, mean BMI 24.5
1998: 65 pps, mean age 16.9, mean BMI 24.9
123
What was the procedure of Becker's study?
1. First group studied in 1995: 63 pps who has been exposed to Tv for less than a month
2. Second group studied in 1998: 65 pps who had been exposed to TV for three years
3. Participants completed the EAT-26 survey as well as their height and BMI collected
4. Those who scored over 20 (indicating ED) took part in a semi-structured interview
In 1998, sample narrative data was audiotaped and transcribed by more than one researcher using thematic analysis
124
What were the results of Becker's study?
- EAT-26 scores over 20 (indicating eating disorder) increased from 12.7% in 1995 to 29.2% in 1998
- In 1998 EAT-26 scores were significantly associated with dieting
- Self-reported data of self-induced vomiting to control weight increased from 0% in 1995 to 11.3% in 1998
- In the 1998 sample, 77% of interviewed participants said that TV had influenced their body image
125
What were the conclusions of Becker's study?
TV media exposure has a negative impact on the disordered eating attitudes in Fijian adolescent girls who previously had no incidence of anorexia or bulimia.
126
Evaluate the generalisability of Becker's study
- 63 women in 1995 and 65 women in 1998; gynocentric
- Findings cannot represent male eating behaviours and attitudes as a result of increased media exposure
- All participants from Fiji = collectivist culture
- All participants were adolescents, so the findings can't represent other age groups
127
Evaluate the reliability of Becker's study
+ Sample narrative data from semi-structured interviews (for those who scored over 20) was audiotaped and transcribed by more than one researcher using thematic analysis
+ High inter-rater reliability
- Semi-structured interview = difficult to replicate
128
Evaluate the applications of Becker's study
+ Applicable to anorexia and other eating disorders
+ Study's conclusions can be used for the prevention of eating disorders and show how slim celebrity role models in the media can be harmful for adolescents
+ Media can be used to promote more varieties of body types to reduce the exposure of unrealistic standards
129
Evaluate the validity of Becker's study
+ High ecological validity; study took place in pp's homes, so the setting/environment does not lack in mundane realism
+ Setting of the home is likely to reflect everyday behaviour, therefore the findings of the study can be applied to the effect of television on eating disorders
- Lack of control over exraneous variables e.g. the type of TV shows they watched or proximity to fast-food restuarants
- Cause & effect can't be established
130
Evaluate the ethics of Becker's study
- Becker's interviews could have made them more likely to develop eating disorders by planting the ideas in their heads
- The adolescent girls could be influenced by what they hear and imitate the behaviours and attitudes discussed in the survey, e.g. purging
- Concerns about protection from harm
- Could cause long-term negative effects
131
What is the Key Question for Learning Theories?
Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that causes anorexia?
132
What are the symptoms of anorexia
- Characterised by being extremely underweight (physical)
- They may be excessively thin but see themself as overweight (cognitive)
- They will lose interest in socialising, feel tiredness, coldness, stomach pain and lack menstruation (emotional and behavioural)
133
What percentage of the population is affected by anorexia?
9% (at least)
134
How many deaths occur each year as a result of anorexia?
10,200 or 1 every 52 minutes
135
Why is anorexia a prevalent issue in society?
It has the second highest mortality rate of any mental illness, second to opioid overdose.
136
What percentage of individuals with anorexia are women?
90%
137
What is the average annual cost to treat someone with an eating disorder?
8,850 pounds (BEAt report)
138
What does the total treatment of anorexia cost the NHS annually?
Between 3.9-4.6 billion pounds (BEAT report)
139
Describe an example of an individual with anorexia.
Ana Carolina Reston was a Brazilian supermodel, who died at 21 due to an infection linked to anorexia.
140
How can Social Learning Theory be used to explain Anorexia?
- Bandura suggested that people observe and imitate behaviour from their role model through mediational processes.
- People with anorexia may identify with models int eh media who are part of the fashion industry, which promotes EDs through exhibiting underweight models.
- The observer will reproduce these unhealthy behaviours such as dieting, purging after eating and excessive laxative use, because they are motivated by the vicarious reinforcement of seeing their role models being praised and receive admiration for being 'slim'
141
How can operant conditioning be used to explain anorexia?
Operant conditioning is learning via consequences, such as the positive reinforcement of public/peer pressure for fashion trends and looking like a thin celebrity. Negative reinforcement also explains extreme dieting, because women may stop getting criticism for their appearance when they lose weight. Both consequences lead to the repetition of restrictive behaviours.
142
How can classical conditioning be used to explain anorexia?
Advertisers use Classical onditioning, which is learning via association where an unconditioned stimulus (like fame or glamour) becomes associated with a neutral stimulus (thinness).
This produces pleasurable feelings such as admiration (unconditioned response).
As a result of Classical Conditioning, people associate thinness (the now conditioned stimulus) with famed and adoration (conditioned response).
143
Evaluate the strengths of the behavourist explanation for phobias
+ Supported by Watson & Raynor, who proved that a fear response can be conditioned into humans using Classical Conditioning
+ They studied 'Little Albert' and conditioned him to have a phobia of white and fluffy things by pairing the neutral stimulus of a white rat with an unconditioned stimulus of a loud banging noise.
+ Over time, through repetition of this process, Little Albert developed a conditioned fear response, as well as stimulus generalisation to white fluffy objects
+ This supports the behaviourist approach
144
Evaluate the credibility of the behavourist explanation for phobias
+ The theory of phobia acquisition through classical conditioning and operant conditioning is highly credible as they are well-established theories.
+ Supported by empirical research by Watson and Raynor on 'little Albert' - found that a fear response can be conditioned into humans using classical conditioning, and 31 days after all tests, Little Albert still demonstrated the same conditioned response.
+ Watson proposed the conditioned fear would last a lifetime. This strengthens the idea that phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning.
- However Watson and Raynor used a 9-month old infant for their study, so the findings of the study can't be generalised and applied to adults, who may have a different response.
- Babies have more neutral stimuli because they haven't had enough time to have had the same experiences as adults, who may already have pre-conceived ideas about situations that the babies will not.
- This indicates that phobias may not be acquired through classical conditioning in adults.
145
Evaluate the other explanations of the behavourist explanation for phobias
- Social learning theory offers another explanation for acquiring a phobia.
A person may obtain a phobia through observing and imitating a role model.
- Cook & Mineka demonstrated that infant rhesus monkeys who watched adult monkeys displaying fears of fear-relevant stimuli such as toy snakes acquired a fear of those toys.
- This shows that the classical and operant conditioning explanations for acquiring phobias may not always take place as phobias may be acquired through observational learning which has been modelled by others.
146
Evaluate the debates of the behavourist explanation for phobias
- Phobias could be a displacement of anxiety, as suggested by Freud.
- In psychodynamic theory, Freud suggests that when a person experiences anxiety, they could cope with it through displacing their anxiety with a phobia, such as phobia of a spider. This shows that some cases of phobias could be caused by displacement of anxiety rather than classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
- Does not take into account evolutionary factors and innate fears which we are born with. For example, common phobias include the dark, and fear of spiders, as these are an evolved behaviours to protect ourselves from dangerous situations.
- Therefore it could be argued that phobia acquisition by CC and OC is an incomplete and reductionist explanation of phobias
147
Evaluate the applications of the behavourist explanation for phobias
+ With systemic desensitisation, a troubling conditioned response (the phobia) is associated with the conditioned stimuli (such as a spider) in a relaxing, safe environment. Over time, the patient stops associating fear with the spider, turning it back into a NS, therefore producing no fear reaction. This causes the extinction of the phobia. + Flooding: individual is exposed to the thing they fear and forcing them to confront it.
+ Therefore, the behaviourist explanations of phobia acquisition by classical conditioning and operant conditioning have useful applications to society through the treatment of phobias
