Learning Theories

Question 1

What is meant by Thematic Analysis?

Answer 1

• the aim of thematic analysis is to analyse the data without losing its meaningfulness but making the data more manageable by reducing it into patterns, trends and themes
• A technique used when analysing quantitative data - Data is produced, for e.g., from the transcripts of an interview, and then themes or categories are identified
• researcher then goes through transcripts and notes where each theme/category is found and might draw out a few examples

Question 2

What are the main aims of thematic analysis?

Answer 2

1. to impose some order on the data
2. to ensure that the order represents the participants perspective
3. to summarise the data so that hundreds of pages or text or pictures, or hours of recordings can be reduced to something more meaningful
4. to enable general conclusions to be drawn

Question 3

There are 2 approaches that can be taken when carrying out thematic analysis, what are they?

Answer 3

Inductive approach- researcher would read and re-read the qualitative data gathered and themes would emerge, WITHOUT the researcher imposing their ideas or expectations

Deductive approach- researcher would specify the themes that they will look in the data before analysing the data

Question 4

What are the 10 steps to carrying out thematic analysis?

Answer 4

1. Gather - gather quantitative data using suitable tool such as questionnaire or interview
2. Journal- begin a reflexive journal, this is to log the process of carrying out a thematic analysis
3. Prepare- transcribe the data carefully, using no interpretation, prepare the data ready for analysis
4. Appoint- appoint coders, researcher can be a coder but does not have to be
5. Familiarise- The data have to become well known and familiar to the coder
6. Ideas- each piece of data has to be identified as an idea, to shorten what is said or found into something manageable
7. Identifying Themes- From the ideas, the coder will identify themes, an idea can theme in its own right
8. Naming Themes- Themes are named and then the analysis can be reviewed to check where the data fits and to reconsider ideas in the light
9. Reliability/Validity check- review journal to look for any interpretations, and put that right so that the data is valid
10. Report of the results- write up the report of the results , a report would include a description of the analysis process, as well as issues raised by the reflective journal

Question 5

What are strengths of thematic analysis?

Answer 5

• well suited to large data sets
• great for multiple researchers
• interpretation of themes supported by data
• allows for categories to emerge from data
• flexibility it allows researchers, in that multiple theories can be applied to this process across
• discovery and verification of themes and codes mesh
• allows researchers to expand range of study past individual experiences
• applicable to research questions that go beyond an individual’s experience

Question 6

What are weaknesses of thematic analysis?

Answer 6

• limited interpretive power if analysis excludes theoretical framework
• flexibility makes it difficult to concentrate on what aspect of the data to focus on
• reliability is a concern due to the wide variety of interpretations from multiple researchers
• difficult to maintain sense of continuity of data in individual accounts

Question 7

what is meant by content analysis?

Answer 7

(indirect observation)
- type of observational study in which behaviour is seen indirectly in written or verbal material that considers the content of articles, newspapers, media programs and books - auditory or visual material
- it involves exploring articles to find out key terms or instances, generating categories (themes-possibly using thematic analysis) and then instances are in each category can be counted so that quantitative data is produced

Question 8

what are the three types of content analysis?

Answer 8

1. conventional content analysis= picking categories out from the data
2. directive content analysis= theory drives the categories
3. summative content analysis= searching for key words and then counting them before interpreting the data

Question 9

what are the strengths of content analysis?

Answer 9

• content analysis is a readily understood, inexpensive research method. It is unobtrusive, and doesn’t require contact with people
• researchers can learn much about a media production’s policies, target audience, politics and financial support. becomes a more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. it is useful for analysing historical material, especially for documenting trends over time
• establishing reliability is easy and straightforward. Of all the research methods, content analysis scores highest regarding ease of replication. usually the materials can be made available for others to use
• tends to have high ecological validity because it is based on observations of what people actually do- real communications that are current and relevant

Question 10

what are the weaknesses of content analysis?

Answer 10

• content analysis is a purely descriptive method. it describes what is there but may not reveal the underlying motives for the observed pattern (“what” but not “why”)
• the analysis is limited by availability of material. observed trends in media may not be an accurate reflection of reality; for example, catastrophic events receive more coverage than less dramatic occurrences
• observer bias reduces the objectivity and ecological validity of findings because different observers may interpret the meaning of the categories differently
• likely to be culture-bound because source material is rooted in culture and behavioural categories are likely to be determined by culture and the observer

Question 11

animal research: the use of animals in laboratory experiments, what are the guidelines for using animals?

Answer 11

bps has published guidelines based on animals
- the document refers to the 3rs, replacing, reducing and refining
guideline for using animals:
A appropriate use of anaesthetic and pain killers to keep suffering to a minimum
N non - animal methods cannot be done (replacing)
I important enough to justify its use (refining)
M minimum number of animals is used (reducing)
A accommodation has the right facilities to look after the animals properly
L legislation is followed from bps
S skills, experience and training of all competent staff involved

Question 12

animal research: what is the cost benefit analysis?

Answer 12

the bateson’s decision cube is useful to decide when to use an animal which is based around 3 issues:
- usefulness of findings
- distress to the animal,
reliability of the research
the cost to the animal must be taken into account and the benefits of the study must be weighed up against the costs
- if the findings do not have validity, reliability, or generalizability then perhaps it is not a good research and cannot be justified

Question 13

what are 3 arguments for the use of animals?

Answer 13

• Bateson’s cube is useful - decisions about carrying out a study using animals have to take into account 3 issues
  1. how useful the findings are going to be
  2. what distress will be caused
  3. how sound the research is (e.g. in terms of reliability)
• Gray 1991- argued we have moral responsibility to our own species to understand as much as we can, which is on the side of using animals
• Singer 1975- argues research should take place if for the greatest good of the greatest number
  Darwin showed through his ideas about evolution that findings from animals can be generalised to humans

Question 14

what are 3 arguments against the use of animals

Answer 14

singer 1975- argues that we should not carry out anything on animals that we would not carry out on ourselves- speciesism
- findings from animals may not be generalisable so there is no justification for doing studies using animals
- the cost-benefit argument does not work as the cost to animals might not be known at the start and neither might the benefit of the findings

Question 15

what are some ethical issues regarding the use of animals in laboratory experiments?

Answer 15

• physical harm
• psychological harm
• stress and neglect
• people might not be qualified to work with animals
• animals are used for makeup - testing

Question 16

evaluating the use of animals in laboratory experiments, what are the strengths?

Answer 16

• animal are relatively small and usually easy to handle so procedures can be more feasible than if using humans
• some animals have short gestation periods and reproductive cycles so generations and genes can be studied more easily than with humans
• some animals have similar brain structure (e.g. rats and mice) to humans and so there is value in using animals in studies and relating the findings to humans

Question 17

evaluating the use of animals in laboratory experiments, what are the weaknesses?

Answer 17

• the brains of animals are not exactly the same as humans so generalizing findings to humans might not be valuable
• using animals in studies and then drawing conclusions about humans does not address the complexity of human processing and behaviour

Question 18

methods: observations

Answer 18

observations can be used within research methods such as case studies and laboratory experiments or they can be used on their own
- their is no IV to manipulate
- all data is gathered by simply observing
you could gather QUANTITATIVE DATA e.g. observing how many times people act aggressively or QUALITATIVE DATA e.g. describing how people acted aggressively

Question 19

what are the 3 ways to collect data in observations?

Answer 19

1. Tallying: making a mark on a piece of paper or somehow, to record each instance of something happening, such as someone holding a door open for another person with shopping in a busy shopping centre
2. Event Sampling: choosing which events are to be observed and then noting down each time that event occurs e.g. watching instances of door - holding for people with shopping
3. Time Sampling: observing for certain periods of time e.g. every 5 minutes. This can make observations more manageable

Question 20

observations can be carried out in numerous ways, what are they?

Answer 20

• structured
• naturalistic

Question 21

what is meant by a structured observation?

Answer 21

In the observation, the situation is set up and then what happens is observed (can be covert, overt, participant or non - participant)
EVIDENCE=
Mary Ainsworth used structured observations.
- she set up a situation that she could called the “strange situation”
- she observed interactions between mothers and their children to examine attachment patterns
- interactions were watched through a one way mirror and all data was gathered by observation
- the “strange situation” involved a mother and child together “normally” in a strange place and then a stranger entering the room
- wanted to see what the child would do when the child was both in and out of the room, with or without the stranger being present
- main focus was to see how the child behaved in the 2 reunions to the mother, when she re - entered the room to be with the child

Question 22

what is meant by a Naturalistic observation?

Answer 22

observations take place in the participants natural setting (can be covert, overt, participant or non - participant)
EVIDENCE= GRADY ET AL (2012)
- looked at parents dropping off children at preschool to look at parental behaviour, the length of time the separation
between the child and parents took and how the child interacted with peers
- the aim was to see the effect of parental lingering when dropping their child off at school
there were set categories for recording such as “parental hug”, “hover” and “walk away”
- it was found that when parents took longer to leave, children stayed longer near them and spent less time with peers and in social interaction

Question 23

what is meant by Participant (overt or covert)

Answer 23

Covert participant observation is whereby the observer takes part and the study is not known about
Over participant observation is whereby the observer takes part and the study is known about

Question 24

What is meant by Non - participant (covert or overt)

Answer 24

Covert non - participant observation is whereby the observer does not take part and the study is not known about
Overt non - participant observation is whereby the observer does not take part but the study is known about

Question 25

what are the strengths of participant observations?

Answer 25

(this is where observers are a part of what they are observing) (they are involved in situation, activity or group) STRENGTH= ecological validity, observation is in a natural setting, including not having a stranger present STRENGTH= participant observer likely to gather VALID data because the setting is natural and what occurs is also natural

Question 26

what are the weaknesses of participant observations?

Answer 26

WEAKNESS= difficult to replicate because it is difficult to find an observer who is also a member of the group WEAKNESS= observer too involved to record all the data, cannot step back from the situation and they have a role to play

Question 27

what are the strengths of non - participant observations?

Answer 27

(this is where observers are not part of what is being observed) (they sit away from the activity) STRENGTH= non - participant observations are OBJECTIVE, can stand back from the situation better than participant observers STRENGTH= non - participant observer can record data easily than participant observers because they have time to concentrate STRENGTH= non - participant observer can tally more systematically than a participant observer

Question 28

what are the weaknesses of non - participant observations?

Answer 28

WEAKNESS= non - participant observers are likely to AFFECT the situation just by their presence WEAKNESS= non - participant observer may MISS RELEVANCE of some interactions or misunderstood something, as they were not a part of the observation

Question 29

what are the strengths of covert observations?

Answer 29

( this is where the participants DO NOT KNOW the observation is taking place) STRENGTH= behaviour of the participants likely to be NATURAL because they are unaware that they are being observed, therefore there is VALIDITY STRENGTH= observation is easier to carry out, as the participant are not watching the observer carry out the observation

Question 30

what are the weaknesses of covert observations?

Answer 30

WEAKNESS= they are often not ethical because there is no informed consent; if they are not carried out in a public place, they go against ethical guidelines WEAKNESS= the observer CANNOT BE HELPED by participants (find a suitable place to observe) because the participants are unaware that the observation is taking place

Question 31

what are the strengths of overt observations?

Answer 31

(this is where the participants KNOW the observation is taking place and they are aware of all aspects of the study) STRENGTH= they ARE ETHICAL because informed consent can be gained and the right to withdraw can be given STRENGTH = observers can ask for help to set up the study (where to observe from)

Question 32

what are the weaknesses of overt observations?

Answer 32

WEAKNESS= the participants know they are being WATCHED so might not act naturally, therefore there is a doubt about validity of the data WEAKNESS= might be difficult to CARRY OUT because the observers themselves would be watched to see what they are doing

Question 33

what are the strengths of structured observations?

Answer 33

STRENGTH= structured observations are set up and can be repeated so results can be compared between observations and reliability is likely STRENGTH= this is a way to ensure that the behaviour to be observed does take place - it can take a long time for some behaviour to occur naturally

Question 34

what are the weaknesses of structured observations?

Answer 34

WEAKNESS= the situation is set up and so is artificial in some ways, suggesting a lack of ecological validity WEAKNESS= it is possible that the situation, though set up carefully, might be be interpreted differently by different participants so it may not be as generalisable

Question 35

what are the strengths of naturalistic observations?

Answer 35

STRENGTH= observations take place in the natural environment of the participant, so there is ecological validity STRENGTH= they gather much in depth data and detail, which is difficult using any other research method: data are often qualitative and rich even when quantitative data can be detailed

Question 36

what are the weaknesses of naturalistic observations?

Answer 36

WEAKNESS= there might be subjectivity because the observer has to choose what to observe and what to record WEAKNESS= an observation is of one group or individual at one moment in time, so the data are not generalisable to other people at different times

Question 37

what is meant by inter observer/inter-rater reliability?

Answer 37

When there is more than one observer, observations can be compared. The separate sets of data are recorded and then tested to see if there is a correlation between them If there is a correlation, then it is said that the observation has inter - observer reliability

Question 38

Pavlov's experiment with dogs, what was the aim for this experiment?

Answer 38

- Ivan Pavlov's initial aim was to learn about the salvation reflex, however he noted that salivation in dogs occurred not only in response to food but to stimuli that typically occurred close in time to the presentation of food - Pavlovs broad aim then shifted towards exploring conditioned reflexes - what we now call classical conditioned responses Pavlov was interested in: - explaining the role of conditioned reflexes in the eating behaviour of dogs - exploring how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli apparently unrelated to food and the properties of this association

Question 39

what was the procedure of Pavlovs dogs?

Answer 39

Pavlov was a scientist which led him to set up his experiment in a controlled setting (lab experiment) - he chose salivation as it was measurable ( drops can be counted or the amount can be measured in a glass tube - his most known method was an experimental procedure involving collecting saliva from the salivary glands of an immobilised dog - was done in a lab, so the production of saliva could be easily observed and measured either by volume or number of drops in the cannula - procedure took place in a soundproof chamber to minimise the effects of extraneous variables such as noise - Pavlov established a baseline by measuring salivation in response to the neutral stimulus (NS) for example a bell or a metronome or buzzer - then he would pair the NS wit the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) of food, usually around 20 minutes

Question 40

what are the findings and conclusion of Pavlov's dogs experiment?

Answer 40

- As NS such as the sound of a bell or metronome or buzzer did not initially cause the dog to salivate, whereas the UCS of food made the dog salivate immediately - after several pairings of NS and UCS the NS could be presented on its own and after a few seconds, the dog would start to salivate before 1= unconditioned stimulus= food unconditioned response= salivation before 2= neutral stimulus= bell no conditioned response = no salivation during conditioning= association= bell and food paired together (ns+ucs) after conditioning= conditioned stimulus= bell conditioned response= salivation

Question 41

what are the strengths of Pavlovs dogs?

Answer 41

STRENGTH= validity, pavlov's study used the laboratory experimental method and had tight controls - therefore they were scientific and cause-and-effect conclusions could be drawn e.g. pavlov clearly showed that a neutral stimulus could become a conditioned stimulus and cause conditioned response (salivation) STRENGTH= - reliability, pavlov and his colleagues carried out many experiments and found the same results- that a stimulus could be conditioned into producing a reflex, so there was reliability in the findings STRENGTH= validity, the study had some clever features such as the soundproof chamber that reduced the impact of extraneous variables such as noise and therefore increases the internal validity of the study STRENGTH= - Pavlov's study has clinical applications in helping understand eating behaviours - obesity can be partially understood in terms of conditioned responses very like those displayed by Pavlov's dog's - e.g Jansen 2003 suggested that overweight children have acquired very strong associations between cues that predict the arrival food and the salivation response - overeating follows exposure to those cues

Question 42

what are the weaknesses of Pavlovs dogs?

Answer 42

WEAKNESS= - generalisability, Pavlov's study used dogs, therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings to humans as human brains are more complex than animals - this limits the usefulness of the study's findings

Question 43

what is the classic study for learning theories?

Answer 43

watson & rayner 1920 - little albert

Question 44

what is the background information of little albert?

Answer 44

- Watson and Rayner wanted to test whether classical conditioning ( learning through association ) worked on humans - carried out a study using principles of classical conditioning on a baby to develop a fear that he did not have previously - needed a reflex action that occurred in response to a stimulus and some other behaviour to condition to cause that reaction - this led them to find a baby whom they could condition to have an emotional response to something new - could little Albert be conditioned to fear a white rat? This is a single case experiment

Question 45

what is the aim of little Albert - Watson & Rayner?

Answer 45

the aim was to investigate whether an emotional response - such as fear - could be conditioned (learnt through association)

Question 46

what is the procedure of little Albert - Watson & Rayner?

Answer 46

- little Albert was the participant of the study - Albert was healthy from birth and well - developed, relatively fearless and emotionless - therefore they thought that they would do him little to no harm by carrying out this experiment - Watson & Raynor tested Albert for fear reactions when he was about 9 months old - They introduced him to a white rat, rabbit, cotton wool and other stimuli and filmed his reactions, he was interested in the objects but showed NO FEAR whatsoever - they banged a hammer against a suspended steel bar to make a loud noise - they found a FEAR RESPONSE, Albert trembled, and cried - this was the first time he had cried in the laboratory where the tests took place - At 11 months old a white rat was presented to Albert , he went to reach for it, as his hand touched the rat the hammer struck the steel bar behind his head making a loud noise, he jumped and fell forward but did not cry, again he tried to touch the rat and again the bar was struck - this time Albert jumped violently, fell forward and began to whimper - the rat and noise were PAIRED together a few times and Albert showed increasing distress - after several pairings the rat was presented ALONE (without the loud noise) - Albert started to cry immediately, turned and started to crawl away

Question 47

what were the results of little Albert study?

Answer 47

- the results after one week demonstrated clearly that little Albert had acquired a fear of rats as a LEARNT emotional response - the pairing of the rat and loud noise created an association resulting in the rat alone being a conditioned stimulus, producing fear as a conditioned response - the fear response to the rat shown by Albert generalised to other similar furry objects, e.g. Santa Claus mask, fur coat, cotton wool, fur coat, cotton wool - Albert was tested again aged 1 year 21 days (about a month after the pairing experiment) - Watson and Rayner showed the rat to Albert (without the loud noise) and found that he was still afraid of it - they said that the response, although a little weaker, was still present and they felt it would last for a life time - Albert was removed from the study - so there was no way of seeing if the responses extinguished (died away)

Question 48

what is the conclusion of little albert watson & rayner

Answer 48

watson and rayner concluded that it is possible to classically condition the emotional response of fear - they also concluded that the conditioned response can be transferred (generalise) to other similar objects

Question 49

what are the strengths of little albert watson and rayner?

Answer 49

STRENGTH= high reliability, the study was carefully documented, witnesses helped to record the data and there were strict controls - Alberts reactions were recorded carefully, the setting was controlled and the independent and dependent variables were clear - therefore the experiment can be replicated as it has high reliability STRENGTH= the study is evidence that classical conditioning occurs in humans - Pavlov had shown that it exists in dogs but it mmight have been difficult to generalise the results of Pavlov's to humans - watson and rayner supported Pavlov's findings and clearly shows that humans can learn an emotional response through classical conditioning STRENGTH= it is important because it gives us an insight into how humans might acquire a phobia - (through a learnt association - classical conditioning) STRENGTH= experiment has good face validity - does appear that watson and rayner were able to condition Albert into becoming fearful of the rat by pairing it with the loud noise

Question 50

what are the weaknesses of little albert watson and rayner?

Answer 50

WEAKNESS= the study is not ethical - the researchers made sure Albert was not easily frightened, however there is clear evidence that he was distressed and he was not sufficiently protected from that distress WEAKNESS= this is a single case experiment so the findings may be limited to Albert - in fact, replications of the experiment failed to produce the findings WEAKNESS= the study may not be valid - the setting (laboratory) and tasks were artificial - it could be argued that a noise from a hammer on a steel bar could represent a real-life noise and playing with white fur and animals is natural - however the setting was not natural and Albert was in a laboratory situation which may have made him initially fearful

Question 51

In the study of little Albert, what is the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response/ neutral stimulus, no conditioned response/ association, unconditioned response/ conditioned stimulus, conditioned response?

Answer 51

before 1 unconditioned stimulus= the banging of the loud hammer unconditined response= little Albert being scared before 2 neutral stimulus= rat no conditioned response= not scared during association= loud banging of the hammer + rat paired up together (ns+ucs) after= conditioned stimulus= the rat conditioned response= little Albert being scared

Question 52

Is psychology a science, what is meant by the term empiricism?

Answer 52

the idea that knowledge only comes from sense data through seeing, touching, tasting, hearing or smelling

Question 53

Is psychology a science, what is meant by the term falsification?

Answer 53

when it is proposed that theories should be able to be proved wrong

Question 54

Is psychology a science, what is meant by the term reductionism?

Answer 54

follows the belief that every single process in nature can be broken down into its constituent parts and can be described scientifically