Social Flashcards
(91 cards)
1
Q
What does BPS stand for?
A
British psychological society
2
Q
What are the 7 ethical guidlines?
A
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Right to withdraw
- Debriefing
- Competence
- Protection from harm
- Confidentiality and privacy
3
Q
What are the 4 principles?
A
- Respect
- Competence
- Responsibility
- Integrity
4
Q
What is the difference between quantitative data and qualitative data?
A
Qualitative is descriptive data and is usually associated with open ended questions whereas quantitative data is numerical and is usually associated with closed ended questions.
5
Q
What are the measures of central tendency?
A
Mean, median, mode
6
Q
What is measures of dispersion?
A
Range
7
Q
Define obedience
A
A form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order, usually from a figure of authority.
8
Q
What is the Agentic state?
A
A mindset that allows us to carry out orders from an authority figure, even if it conflicts with our personal sense of right or wrong. We believed we are acting on someone else’s behalf and therefore have no personal responsibility for our actions.
9
Q
What is the autonomous state?
A
A mindset where we behalf independently, make our own decisions and take responsibility for our own actions.
10
Q
What is moral strain?
A
A state of mental discomfort or anxiety experiences in the agentic state when a persons actions conflict with their personal morality.
11
Q
What is generalisability?
A
The extent to which the findings and conclusions from a study can be applied to the population.
12
Q
What is Reliability?
A
Ensuring that all procedures are the same for all participants. Refers to the consistency of measurements.
13
Q
What is validity?
A
Refers to the accuracy/ trueness of the data collected.
14
Q
What is meant by a standardised procedure?
A
The procedures used in an investigation should be kept the same for all participants.!
15
Q
How did Milgram advertise and what sampling technique did he use?
A
He placed an advert in a local newspaper using volunteer sampling asking for male participants to participate in a MEMORY and LEARNING study.
16
Q
There were 2 confederates. Who did the biology teacher play the role of?
A
The experimenter wearing a grey lab coat
17
Q
Who was the other confederate? In milgrams study?
A
A middle aged accountant who played the role of Mr Wallace. The participants believed that Mr wallace was a participant like them.
18
Q
When did the learner bang on the wall?
A
When 300 volts was given
19
Q
State 2 verbal prods that were used
A
Prod 1: please continue
Prod 3: it is absolutely essential that you continue
20
Q
What were the results of the level of obedience in milgrams study?
A
- all participants gave 300 volts
- 65% gave the full volts
21
Q
State 2 conclusions that Milgram made
A
- ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being.
- when the learner could not be seen or heard, participants are more likely to follow orders to cause harm.
22
Q
What is 2 strengths of Milgrams study?
A
- milgram used standardised procedures, the same 2 confederates were always used, the same 4 prods were used and the same volts. ( this shows reliability)
- can explain war crimes e.g nazi soldiers killing hundreds of people.
23
Q
What are 2 weaknesses of milgrams study?
A
- lack of generalisability, only used 40 males (androcentric) americans (enthocentric) this shows the limited generalisability to other cultures and popularity.
- orne and holland argued that participants acted the way they did because they didnt believe in the set up and were playing along ( meaning that the data and results wouldnt have been as accurate as they could have been ).
24
Q
What is opportunity sampling?
A
the sampling technique most used by psychology students.
It consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and fit criteria you are looking for.
25
What is random sampling?
Defined as a sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.
26
What is stratified sampling?
Involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.
27
What is volunteer sampling?
Self selected sampling consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert.
28
What is social identity theory and who was it proposed by?
It was proposed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979. They developed a theory of prejudice that proposed the mere presence of another group can lead to prejudice.
29
What is meant by in - group?
A group you belong to/ identify with.
30
What is meant by out - group?
A group you do not belong to/ identify with.
31
There are three stages of social identity theory. What is the first stage?
Social categorisation - this is when we categorise ourselves as being in a particular group often based on stereotypes. The group that we belong to is the in - group and any comparison group is the out group.
32
There are three stages to social identity theory. What is the second stage?
Social identification - this refers to when we identify with a particular group and adopt the behaviours of that group. We may also take on the groups norms and values.
33
There are three stages to social identity theory. What is the third stage?
Social comparison - this is when we compare our own group ( the in - group ) more favourably against other groups ( out - groups ) to boost our self esteem.
34
What was Tajfels experiment? (1971)
- investigated whether the simple act of grouping was enough to produce prejudice between groups of very similar people. This is known as minimal groups study.
- sample of bristol school boys given a fake art task - were asked which painter they preferred Klee or Kandinsky.
- were told they would be allocated into one of two groups on the basis of which artist they preferred. ( groups were actually purely random )
- then given a rewards allocation task where they were allowed to give awarded points to two other boys ( one from each group ) at a time.
- found that boys awarded more point to members of their in - group showing in group favouritism.
35
Milgram had many variations of his study. What was experiment 7 called?
Experiment 7: telephonic instructions, closeness of authority, experimenter absent.
36
What was the aim and procedure of experiment 7? ( one of milgrams variations )
Aim: to see if having the experimenter in the room effected the level of obedience, so they did this by having the experimenter in touch by phone
Procedure:
• there was physical distance between the experimenter and the teacher.
• initial instructions were given face to face.
• experimenter would then leave the room and continue to give the instructions via telephone.
37
What was the results and conclusion of experiment 7? ( one of milgrams variations )
- the number of participants willing to give 450 volts fell from 65% to 22.5%
- participants continued to give lower shocks rather than increasing the voltage ( when experimenter would ask they would lie saying that they did increase the shocks when they didnt )
38
What was experiment 10 called? ( one of milgrams variations )
Experiment 10: rundown office block/ institution context
39
What was the aim and procedure of experiment 10? ( one of milgrams variations )
Aim: to see if the outcome would be similar as the original research was carried out at yale university, a prestigious university. Follow - up interviews showed participants felt the nature of the university provided them with confidence to take part, which might be different if it was done somewhere with less respect.
procedure:
- a rundown commercial office building was used in the town of bridgeport
- same procedures were followed as the original
- although the building was sparsely furnished
- the lab was clean
- the researchers had said that they were from a private firm.
40
What was the results and conclusion of experiment 10? ( one of milgrams variations )
Results: -
- participants have more doubts
- obedience did not drop that much
- 47.5% gave the full 450 volts compared to 65% in the original research.
- this was a lower level of obedience but milgram did not think it was a significant difference.
conclusion:
- barley significant
- people will obey experiments regardless of where the laboratory is.
41
What was experiment 13 called? ( one of milgrams variations)
Experiment 13: ordinary man gives orders.
42
What was the aim and procedure of experiment 13? ( one of milgrams variations )
Aim: to see whether an order given by someone without authority is followed.
procedure:
-experimenter gives the instructions about administering the shock but then gets “called away” and leaves the room.
- accomplice in the room who was initially given the task of recording the times - participant thinks is another participant like him and the learner.
- accomplice makes the suggestion of increasing the shocks one at a time as the victim makes a mistake.
43
What was the results and conclusion of experiment 13? (One of milgrams variations)
Results:
- experimenter leaving makes an awkward atmosphere
- only 20% of participants gave the full 450 volts.
Conclusion:
- levels of obedience fell dramatically
44
Sherif et al ( the robbers cave experiment )
What did sherif et al investigate?
intergroup conflict
45
What was the aim of sherif et al’s investigation?
- investigate intergroup relations between groups
- interested in in group formation, the effect of competition and how conflict could be resolved.
46
What was the procedure of sherif et als investigation?
- 22 eleven year old boys (1 was 12) took part in a field study.
- all were white middle class protestants from schools in Oklahoma city.
- boys did not know each other before the investigation
- transported into 2 groups
47
There were 3 stages to the procedure of sherif et als study. What was the first stage?
1. In group formation
- for 5 to 6 days each group were given tasks to carry out in order to help in group formation
- 2 groups were separate from each other
- researchers ( boys thought they were camp staff ) observed verbal and non verbal behaviour and the relationships which emerged.
48
There were 3 stages to the procedure of sherif et als study. What was the second stage?
2. In group relations, the friction phase (competition)
- over the next 4 to 6 days the boys were brought into contact with each other
- competitions between groups for attractive prizes such as penknives.
- groups were subjected to orchestrated situations that they would find frustrating and believed them to be caused by the other group.
49
There were 3 stages to the procedure of sherif et als study. What was the third stage?
The integration (superordinate goals)
- final 6 to 7 days were devoted to bring conflict resolution through the introduction of common goals designed to ensure cooperation between the 2 groups.
3 situations were set up
1. Fixing the water tank which provided water to both groups
2. Joint camp over, group members had to work together for food and sleeping gear
3. Starting the broken down camp bus
50
What was the results for stage 1 ( in group formation ) of sherif et als study?
- boys bonded with their own groups forming their own group norms and values etc
- cooperative activities and named their groups ( rattlers and eagles )
51
What were the results on stage 2 ( the friction phase, competition ) of sherif et als study?
- competition led to immediate hostility
- leaders emerged from each group and became very territorial
- refused to eat with each other
- groups shouted insults at each other
- strong sense of in group favouritism and negative out group bias
- 93% chose friends from their own group when asked who their friends were.
52
What were the results on stage 3 ( superordinate goals ) in sherif et als study?
- joint problem solving task reduced hostility
- tasks involving superordinate goals were introduced
- boys were told they could secure a movie if they collectively paid for it
- worked out a strategy for the payment
- at the end they found that 30% had friends between groups which shows a reduction in prejudice.
53
What did Sherif et al conclude?
What theory does this study support?
- strong in group identities were formed initially
- negative out group bias quickly emerged
- introduction of superordinate goals had a cumulative effect in reducing negative out group bias because it removed competition
- this theory supports REALISTIC CONFLICT THEORY.
54
What is 2 strengths of sherif et als study?
1. The study is high in ecological validity as it is based on a summer camp and involves activities commonly carried out in these camps. This shows that it would have been more accurate.
2. High in reliability as it has a high level of control and careful planning. Staff were participant observers so the boys were unaware that their behaviour was being recorded.
55
What are 2 weaknesses of sherif et als study?
1. Low in generalisability, the study is androcentric and ethnocentric as all participants were white, middle class, 11 year old boys, so generalisation to females of the American population as a whole is not possible.
2. Low in ethics, although parents provided consent, the boys were not informed of what was happening and thought that the camp was about leadership. Also they are not of legal age to give consent (16)
56
What is Realistic conflict theory (sherif 1966) and what does it explain?
- sherif explains prejudice as arising from conflict between groups
- realistic conflict theory states that whenever there are two or more groups that are seeking the same limited resources, this will lead to conflict, negative stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination etc.
57
What was the aim of Jerry Burgers study? 2009
The aim was to investigate obedience by partially replicating milgrams 1963 study.
58
How did jerry burger advertise?
Local paper, volunteer sampling and flyers as well as online by telephone or via email. His advert was $50 for participating.
59
What were the main details on the procedure of Jerry Burgers study?
- screening process, asked questions about if they had been to college, if they took any psychology classes, in order to screen out anybody who was familiar with Milgrams research.
- remaining participants were asked about their physical and psychological health, any traumatic childhood experiences?
- 2nd part of screening process, conducted by two clinical psychologists at santa clara university. Participants were asked to complete a number of questionnaires, scales and surveys about age, occupation, education and ethnicity.
- clinical psychologists assess whether they would be negatively affected by the study.
60
Explain experiment 1 of Jerry Burgers study
- participants were split into 2 groups
- equal ratios of males and females
- introducted to experimenter and confederate
- participant and confederate given $50 and were told they could keep the money even if they withdrew
- a script similar to milgrams was used, explained the experiment etc
- role choice was rigged
- they were both asked to sign consent forms
- milgrams procedure was followed
- experiment was forcibly stopped at 150 volts
- when finished. experimenter told teacher that the shocks were not actually real and introduced them both so that the teacher knew that the learner was ok.
61
explain experiment 2 of Jerry Burgers study
- modelled refusal condition
- same procedure was followed, but with a few changes
- there was 2 confederates instead of 1
-the 2nd confederate posed as a participant
- roles rigged
- learner and teacher was a confederate
- teacher 2 was the real participant
- teacher 1 took the lead, began asking the questions and administering the shocks
- teacher 1 is prompted by experimenter but refuses to continue
- the experimenter then asked teacher 2 (real participant) to continue
62
what were the results of experiment 1 and 2 of Jerry Burgers study?
experiment 1: 70% participants had stopped before going past 150v
experiment 2: 63.3% went to continue after 150v
63
what was the conclusion of Jerry Burgers study?
- time and changes in society's culture did not have an effect on the level of obedience
- Burger obtained very similar results to Milgram's findings that were found in the 1960's.
64
what are 2 strengths of Jerry Burgers study?
- high reliability as it was a standardised procedure, every participant got the same exact experience. same environment and same procedure
- good ethic as every participant had a screening process at the start to see if anybody had any psychological or physical issues. They also had the right to withdraw as they were told 3 times throughout the actual study.
65
What are 2 weaknesses of Jerry Burgers study?
- low ecological validity because it was done in an artificial setting ( Santa Clara university )
- low ethic as they used deception, the roles were rigged, the shocks were not real, the 4 prods were still used, and all participants were forced to continue which is against the ethical guideline of right to withdraw
66
how could personality affect prejudice?
Adorno(1950)
-Authoritarian personalities are rigid thinkers, obedient to authority, stick to social and hierarchies and rules. Adorno found that those with Authoritarian outlook were more likely to be prejudice and show discrimination
67
how could situation affect prejudice?
Cooper & Whitney 2009
- found in examples of strong prejudice
e.g. rise in anti-Semitism in Germany before WW2
situational factors seem strong - factors such as strength of the economy, availability of resources
68
how could culture affect prejudice?
- culture can be an influence on prejudice if that culture has existing social norms that legitimise prejudice practice
- cultures are either collectivistic (emphasising the importance of the whole group) or individualistic (emphasising the importance of the individual)
- Individualists seem to produce more interpersonal prejudice whereas,
- collectivists seem to produces more intergroup prejudice
Al Zahrani & Kaplowitz
- compared America (individualist) and saudi (collectivist) and found that saudi produced a lot of in group favouritism and out group bias
Guimond 2013
- this study found the lowest level of prejudice in Canada and highest in Germany. If different countries with different pro-diversity policies show different levels of prejudice, this suggests that there are cultural factors involved in prejudice
69
What is Milgrams Agency Theory?
- wanted to investigate obedience to help explain the atrocities committed by the Germans.
- Milgram concluded from his research that we are all capable of complying to the demands of someone in authority, even if it means hurting somebody else.
70
How do people act when they are in the Autonomous state?
- individuals see themselves as having power
- they see their actions as being voluntary
- they have free will to make their own decisions
71
How do people act when they are in the Agentic state?
- individuals act as agents for others especially in authority
- their own consciences are not in control
- lose free will to make decisions
72
What is moral strain?
A state of mental discomfort or anxiety experienced in the agentic state when a persons actions conflict with their personal morality
73
What examples are there from Milgrams research to support milgrams agency theory?
Autonomous state:
- participants would protest, and wanted to stop giving mr wallace the shocks
Agentic state:
- experimenter wanted to take responsibility for harm towards mr wallace
Moral strain:
- anxiety, sweating, impatience, nervous laughter, wanting to leave the study ( withdraw )
74
What supporting evidence is there for milgrams agency theory?
Milgram 1963
- found that 100% participants would administer a shock of 300 volts
- found that 65% would go right up to 450 volts
Blass 2012
- looked at cross - cultural comparisons of obedience to authority and found very similar obedience rates cross - culturally which suggests all societies instil obedient behaviour during socialisation
75
What evidence is there that goes against Milgrams Agency theory?
Perry 2012
- questioned the internal validity of this evidence saying that the participants saw through the deception
Rand and jacobson 1977
- study with nurses found that 16/18 nurses failed to obey orders from a doctor who asked them to administer an overdose of the drug Valium
- this shows that despite the doctors being an obvious source of authority, most of the sample remained autonomous. This demonstrates that the nurses did consider themselves responsible for their actions and therefore questions the suggestion of the agentic shift
76
What are 2 strengths of Milgrams Agency theory?
Supporting studies - milgrams original study findings 1963
- found that 100% participants would administer a shock of 300v and 65% would go right up to 450v
Application to the military
- strategies devised to ensure soldiers follow orders without question by reducing moral strain
77
What are 2 weaknesses of milgrams Agency theory?
Gina Perry 2012
- questioned the internal validity of milgrams evidence
- said that participants saw through the deception, and that they did not believe that the shocks were real
Different theories - Authoritarian personality
- can explain high levels of obedience not just the Agency theory ( Adorno et al ) 1950
78
What is the key question for the social approach?
What makes people commit acts of terrorism against fellow human beings?
79
What is the role of ingroup and outgroup identification in terrorist behaviour?
Terrorists may believe that they are the in - group and categorise themselves as such at the expense of anti - terrorists ( the out group ).
- they will take on the social norms and values of the group and wear uniform/clothes to show their membership of the group. This may lead to carrying out atrocities
80
How does realistic conflict theory relate to terrorism?
Realistic conflict theory suggests that competition between groups can lead to discrimination and conflict, potentially contributing to terrorist behaviour
81
What does social impact theory suggest about the behaviour of terrorists?
Social impact theory suggests that terrorists may act due to a strong message from authority figures and a high impact decision making process
82
What is an agentic state and how does it apply to terrorists?
An agentic state is when individuals follow a leaders commands, possibly without questioning
terrorists may be in the agentic state, obeying commands to commit atrocities
83
What is Latanes social impact theory 1981
Latanes social impact theory explains how individuals are influenced by others in social contexts. It proposes that social influence depends on three factors
84
What is social force? ( latanes social impact theory )
This is a pressure that gets put on people to change their behaviour
85
What is meant by strength in Latanes social impact theory?
This is how much power you believe the person influencing you has.
86
What is meant by immediacy in latanes social impact theory?
This is how recent the influence is and how close to you, from an order a minute ago from your boss standing right next to you (very immediate) to an email you received from your boss last week (not very immediate)
87
What is meant by numbers in latanes social impact theory?
The more people who put pressure on you to do something, the more social force they will have
88
What is meant by psychological law in latanes social impact theory?
The first source of influence has the strongest impact, with each additional source adding less effect
Eg. Being watched by one person feels intense, but being watched by two or more doesnt increase the pressure
The same applies to authority figures, one teacher giving an order has a strong effect, but additional teachers repeating it dont add much more pressure
89
What is meant by divisions of impact in latanes social impact theory?
- social force is spread out between all the people it is directed at
- if all force is directed at a single person that puts a huge pressure on they to conform or obey
- but if force is directed at two people they only experience half as much pressure each
Known as diffusion of responsibility- the more of you there are, the less personal responsibility each of you will feel
90
What is supporting evidence of latanes social impact theory?
Sedikides & jackson 1990
- conducted a field experiment at a new york zoo
- visitors were asked not to lean on a railing
- researchers manipulated the strength of the source by dressing a confederate either as a zookeeper or in a t shirt and shorts
- obedience declined when the visitors were further from a person testing immediacy
- finally, the divisional effect was also tested - obedience was greater in a smaller group of one or two visitors compared with a group of five or six
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