Lecture 01. Biochemistry & Metabolism Flashcards

Question

(Organic Molecule) Carbohydrates (3 Classes)

Answer 1

Provide the body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support body functions. * Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen * Provide a ready, easily used source of cellular fuel Classes: 1. **Monosaccharides:** Simple sugars, the simplest carbohydrate form. In general, the basic molecular formula is (CH2O)n. Monosaccharide' function: a source of energy for organisms. Examples: Glucose, galactose, and fructose. 2. **Disaccharides:** Consist of two monosaccharides joined together by a covalent bond. This bond is generally between the number 1 carbon of one monosaccharide and the number 4 carbon of the other molecule. Disaccharides' function: a nutritional source of monosaccharides. Examples: sucrose or table sugar, maltose, and lactose. 3. **Polysaccharides:** Composed of thousands of monosaccharides. The addition of new monosaccharides could continue indefinitely making a huge molecule forming a long (and branched via the 6- carbon) chain of glucose molecules. This long chain is known as a polysaccharide. Polysaccharides' function: an easily accessible storage form of glucose. Examples: starch and glycogen.

Answer 2

Steps to produce ATP. 1. Glycolisis: Glucose undgoes glycolisis which makes 2 ATP and 2 Pyruvate. 2. Krebs Cycle: The Pyruvate enters the Krebs Cycle which will then be converted to Pseudo-Coenzyme A. Another 2 ATP is then made, which requires 4 waters and produce 4 carbon dioxide. 3. Oxidative Phosphorilation: The NADH and FADH enters oxidatidive phosphorilation which makes another 34 ATP. 1 glucose molecule + 6 oxygen + 38 ATP + 38 inorganic phospahate = 6co2 6h2o and 38 ATP (C6H12O6 + 6O2 +38APT +38Pi = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP) (number of atp varies 32-40 depending on text and conditions atp is being made. 38 is most accepted number).

Answer 3

Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Lipids are a group of naturally occurring moleculesthat include fats, waxes, steroids, fat soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides,diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Five classes: 1. **Fatty acids:** Used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). * *Saturated:** When all the carbons in a fatty acid are linked by single covalent bonds because both of the remaining available bonds in each carbon atom are occupied—or saturated—with covalently bound H. Tend to be solid at low temperatures. * *Unsaturated: **Contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, (they have fewer C—H bonds than a saturated fatty acid). have a very low melting point, and thus they are liquids (oil) even at low temperatures. 2. **Eicosanoids:** Have diverse effects on modifying responses to hormones, blood clotting, inflammation, immunity, stomach acid secretion. * *Prostaglandins: **The prostaglandins act as signals to control several different processes depending on the part of the body in which they are made. Prostaglandins are made at sites of tissue damage or infection, where they cause inflammation, pain and fever as part of the healing process. * *Leukotrienes: **Biologically active molecules, formed by leukocytes, mastocytoma cells, macrophages, and other tissues and cells in response to immunological and nonimmunological stimuli. 3. **Glycerides:** (neutral fats) Protection, insulation, energy storage. 4. **Steroids:** Distinctly different structure from those of the other subclasses of lipid molecules. Four interconnected rings of carbon atoms form the skeleton of every steroid. A few hydroxyl groups, which are polar, may be attached to this ring structure, but they are not numerous enough to make a steroid water soluble. * *Cholesterol: **Required to maintain both membrane structural integrity and fluidity. * *Estrogen and Testosterone: **Stimulate the growth of sex organs, breasts and pubic hair, regulate the functioning of the menstrual cycle, maintains condition of the vaginal lining and its elasticity, and in producing vaginal lubrication (women). * *Corticosteroids and Calcitriol: The hormonally active form of vitamin D. It i**ncreases the level of calcium in the blood by increasing the uptake of calcium from the gut into the blood, and possibly increasing the release of calcium into the blood from bone. * *Bile Salts: **Have a crucial role in hepatobiliary and intestinal homeostasis and digestion. 5. **Phospholipids and Glycolipids: **Similar in overall structure to triglycerides, with one important difference - The third hydroxyl group of glycerol, rather than being attached to a fatty acid, is linked to phosphate. A small polar or ionized nitrogen containing molecule is usually attached to this phosphate. These groups constitute a polar (hydrophilic) region at one end of the phospholipid, whereas the two fatty acid chains provide a nonpolar (hydrophobic) region at the opposite end. Therefore, phospholipids are amphipathic. In aqueous solution, they become organized into clusters, with their polar ends attracted to the water molecules. This property of phospholipids permits them to form the lipid bilayers of cellular membranes.

Answer 4

Proteins account for about 50% of the organic material in the body (17% of the body weight), and they play critical roles in almost every physiological and homeostatic process. Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other elements, notably sulfur. They are macromolecules, often containing thousands of atoms; they are formed when a large number of small subunits (monomers) bond together via dehydration reactions to create a polymer. Seven major protein functions: * **Support** * **Movement** * **Transport** * **Buffering** * **Metabolic regulation** * **Coordination and control** * **Defense**

Answer 5

* **Fibrous: **insoluble, and play a structural or supportive role in the body, and are also involved in movement (as in muscle and ciliary proteins). * **Globular: **highly diverse group of proteins that are soluble and form compact spheroidal molecules in water. All have tertiary structure and some have quaternary structure in addition to secondary structure. Include * **Chaperone:** assist the non-covalent folding or unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of other macromolecular structures. * **Enzymes: **allow the cell to carry out chemical reactions very quickly. These reactions allow the cell to build things or take things apart as needed.

Answer 6

* **Glycoproteins:** in the immune system almost all of the key molecules involved in the immune response are glycoproteins. Large protein + small carbohydrate * **Proteoglycans:** in all connective tissues, extracellular matrix (ECM) and on the surfaces of many cell types. Proteoglycans are remarkable for their diversity Large polysaccharides + polypeptides

Answer 7

* Long chains of nucleotides form RNA and DNA

Answer 8

A nucleotide is an organic molecule made up of a nucleotide base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and at least onephosphate group. Nucleotides make up the basic units of DNA and RNA molecules.

Answer 9

* **RNA: **Ribonucleic acid is a family of large biological molecules that perform multiple vital roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. * **DNA: **DNA in the cell nucleus contains the information needed to construct all of the proteins in the body.

Answer 10

* **Messenger RNA (mRNA):** Carries information about a protein sequence to the ribosomes, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. * **Transfer RNA (tRNA): **A small RNA chain of about 80 nucleotides that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptidechain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. * **Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): **Found in many bacteria and plastids. It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling.

Answer 11

* **Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP): **An important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. * **Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): ** Used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism.

Answer 12

The addition of a phosphate group to a protein or other organic molecule. Phosphorylation turns many protein enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity.

Answer 13

* Chemical energy stored in phosphate bonds.

Answer 14

Classes of organic and inoragnic substances **Inorganic** * **Water** **Building blocks:** Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms **Sources:** Absorbed as liquid water or generated by metabolism **Functions:** Solvent; Transport medium for dissolved materials and heat; Cooling through evaporation; Medium for chemical reactions; Reactant in hydrolysis * **Acids, bases, salts Builing blocks:**H+, OH-, Various anions and cations **Sources:** Obtained from the diet or generated by metabolism **Functions:** Structural components; Buffers; Sources of ions * **Dissolved gasses Builing blocks:**O, C, N, and other atoms **Sources:** Atmosphere **Functions:** O2 required for cellular metabolism; CO2 generated by cells as a waste product; NO chemical messangers involved in cardiovascular, nervous, and lymphatic systems **Organic** * **Carbohydrates Builing blocks:**C, H, O, in some cases N **Sources:** Obtained from the diet or manufactured in the body **Functions:** Energy sources; some structural role when attached to lipids or proteins; Energy storage * **Lipids Builing blocks:**C, H, O, N, In some cases N and P **Sources:** Obtained from the diet or manufactured in the body **Functions:** Energy source; Energy storage; Insulation; Structural componenets; Chemical messangers; Protection * **Proteins Builing blocks:**C, H, O, N, Commonly S **Sources:** 20 common amino acids; Roughly half can be manufactured in the body, others must be obtained in the diet **Functions:** Catalysts for metabolic reactions; Structural components; Movement; Transport; Buffers; Defense; Control and coordination of activities