Lecture 1 & 2 Flashcards
1
Q
what is biochemistry
A
study of the molecular basis of life
scientific study of the chemical substances and processes of living matter.
2
Q
Biochemistry can explain processes within other life science disciplines such as
A
Biotechnology and bioinformatics
Cell biology and signaling
Development and disease
Energy and metabolism
Genetics
Molecular biology
Plant biology
Pharmacology and ototoxicity (it is biochemistry at its core)
3
Q
what is an ion
A
an electrically charged atom or molecule formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons
4
Q
Each ring of an atom has a maximum number of electrons that it can hold
A
truee
5
Q
The first (inner) ring can only hold
A
two electrons
6
Q
The second level can hold
A
eight electrons
7
Q
The third can hold
A
18 electrons
8
Q
The fourth holds
A
32 electrons
9
Q
positive charged ion – Na+
A
cation
10
Q
negative charged ion – Cl-
A
anion
11
Q
If an atomic shell has lost electrons, there will be more protons than electrons, giving the ion a _____ charge, one for each unbalanced proton
A
positive
12
Q
If electrons are added to a shell, there will be more electrons than protons and the ion will be ______ charged, one for each extra electron
A
negatively
13
Q
Such substances are also called electrolytes because
A
they facilitate conductance of electrical current
14
Q
The electrostatic attraction between +ve & -ve ions brings the particles together and creates an
A
ionic compound, such as sodium chloride – NACL (salt)
15
Q
what is a molecule
A
the smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance
16
Q
made up of two or more atoms linked by a chemical bond
A
molecule
17
Q
The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the
A
atomic number (Z)
18
Q
In general, atoms are most stable, i.e., least reactive, when
A
their outermost electron shell is full
19
Q
what makes up an uncharged atom
A
equal number of electrons and protons
20
Q
An uncharged atom (equal number of electrons and protons) may have balanced charges
A
true
21
Q
But if its outer shell is not full it will be
A
chemically unstable
22
Q
what is a radical
A
an uncharged atom that has an outer shell not full and is chemically unstable?
23
Q
In humans, free oxygen radicals are released from many processes of cell chemistry
A
true
24
Q
But too many free radicals damage other molecules over time, producing
A
some aging effects and probably some cancers
25
what is a compound
combination of < 2 elements with a chemical union
These elements combine in a reproducible way
They can be converted into simpler forms by chemical means
26
loss of electrons = more protons = positive = anion
false
cation
27
what is an example of a cation
sodium
28
gain an electron = more electrons = negative = cation
false
anion
29
what is an example of an anion
calcium?
CL-
30
what makes an ionic compound & an example
electrostatic attraction between +ve & -ve ions brings the particles together and creates this
sodium chloride – NACL (salt)
31
common ions in the body & cochlea include
Na+, K+, Cl-
32
does perilymph have high or low potassium
low
endo has high
33
The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.
atom
34
electrically neutral, meaning the number of protons (positive charge) equals the number of electrons (negative charge)
atoms
35
An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, giving it a net electric charge.
ion
36
A group of two or more atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
molecule
37
what are the differences between atoms, ions & molecules
Atoms are single units of elements with no charge (neutral).
Ions are charged atoms or molecules due to the loss or gain of electrons.
Molecules are combinations of two or more atoms bonded together, which can be either neutral or charged (if they form ionic compounds).
atoms are the building blocks of matter, ions are charged versions of these building blocks, and molecules are combinations of atoms bonded together.
38
molecules or atoms that have an unpaired electron. This unpaired electron makes radicals highly reactive and capable of engaging in chemical reactions with other molecules.
radicals
39
molecules or atoms that have an unpaired electron. This unpaired electron makes radicals highly reactive and capable of engaging in chemical reactions with other molecules
radicals
40
molecule, atom, or ion that has an unpaired electron in its outer shell.
This unpaired electron makes free radicals highly reactive, as they tend to seek out and capture electrons from other molecules to achieve a more stable electron configuration.
\
free radical
41
chemically bonded substance composed of two or more different elements in fixed proportions, exhibiting properties distinct from those of its individual elements
compound
42
what are examples of compounds
Water (H₂O): A compound made of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl): An ionic compound made from sodium ions and chloride ions
43
combination of two or more substances that are physically combined, not chemically bonded, and can be separated by physical means.
mixture
44
the components of a mixture retain their individual properties and can vary in proportion
mixture
45
heterogeneous mixture, is a type of mixture in which the components are not evenly distributed throughout the mixture.
Non-uniform mixture
46
reproducible no matter how many times you do it & you can break it down
compound
47
In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging in hierarchy from
Atomic
Molecular
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organism (a form of life, for e.g., an animal)
Population
Ecosystem
48
Usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure
true
49
An organism consists of
atoms, molecules, cells, and tissue
50
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with
Identification of the substances of which matter is composed
The investigation of the properties of substances
The ways in which substances interact, combine, and change
The use of these processes to form new substances
51
graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged
structural formula
52
biomolecular structure of a protein molecule
protein structure
53
what are proteins
polypeptide sequences formed from the building blocks of many amino acids
54
everything in the body is
proteins
55
what are the different types of bonds
covalent
non covalent
56
what are examples of non covalent bonds
Electrostatic bonds (ionic)
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrophobic attractions
van der Waals bonds/forces
57
what are covalent bonds
bonding that happens bw nonmetals
58
sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules
covalent
59
found in molecules where atoms are bonded together by shared electrons.
covalent bonds
60
strongest bonds in the body
covalent
61
why are they the strongest covalent bonds in the body
it takes a lot of energy to break them
62
covalent bonds are typically involved in drug receptor interactions
FALSE
they are not
63
why are covalent bonds not involved in drug receptor interactions
medication has to come, attach to cell membrane and then go away
NEVER INVOLVED IN DRUG RECEPTORS because it has to make a change and then go away
64
special type of force between a positive hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur
hydrogen bon
65
weaker than covalent and ionic bonds
hydrogen bond
66
When atoms are close together, and several bonds are formed it ______ the strength of the bond
increases
67
igher boiling points than similarly sized molecules that do not have an -O-H or an -N-H group
hydrogen bond
68
makes the molecules "stickier", and more heat is necessary to separate them
hydrogen bonding
69
Hydrogen bonds perform critical functions in the body, including
Holding the two strands of the DNA double helix together
Holding polypeptides together
Helping enzymes bind to their substrate
Helping antibodies bind to their antigen
Helping transcription factors bind to each other
Helping transcription factors bind to DNA
69
electrostatic bonds between two ions of opposite charges
ionic bonds
70
one has to be a metal and the other a nonmetal
ionic bonds
71
electrostatic bonds between two ions of opposite charges
ionic bonds
72
transfer of > one electrons from a metal onto a non-metal
Atoms with an excess of electrons (-vely charged atom) are attracted to atoms with a deficiency of electrons (+vely charged atom)
ionic bonds
73
he most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site
ionic bon
74
Sodium (Na) (alkaline metal) and Chlorine (Cl)
ionic bond
75
Chlorine atom takes an electron from the sodium atom converting the atoms into ions (Na+) and (Cl-), which are now held together by their opposite electrical charge
ionic bond
76
Molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range
van der waals bonds
77
residual attractive/repulsive forces between molecules or atomic groups that do not arise from a covalent bond, or electrostatic interaction of ions, or ionic groups with one another, or with neutral molecules
van der waals bonds
78
The bigger the atom or molecule the bigger the
Van der Waals' force
79
describe van der Waals forces
They are the most common bond between atoms
They are weaker than covalent, ionic, or hydrogen bonds
These forces operate only when molecules pass very close to each other
They provide a weak force for some drugs and their receptors
80
what is the strongest bond that happens in the environment or body
covalent
81
would you like a covalent bond sitting on receptors for drugs? what happens with binding of this bond? why dont we want it with drrugs? why is it good in the body?
no
it can kill someone
it is very strong so you want it for amino acids but dont want the drugs stuck on cell membranes for forever
82
when they get too close they repel
when they get further away they attract
Van der Waals bonds
83
what are free radicals
they are bad if there are too many because they damage other cells over time and can cause unhealthy aging/cancer/inflammation etc.
they are end product of many chemical reactions so they are in the badly
84
what is oxidation
loss of electrons
85
what is reduction
gain of electrons
86
what is redox
reaction of oxidation and reduction together
87
can reduction happen without oxidation
NO
they are a matched set (redox reactions)
88
half-reaction
each reaction by itself
oxidation and reduction happening by itself (doesn't happen)
89
describe oxidation
atoms that are metal will lose electrons (give them up) and when this happens it is + charge because it has more protons
become cations during oxidation periodd
90
describe reduction
atoms of non metal will take them and reduced so they become anions (more electrons)
reduction
91
what is oxidative stress
disturbance (imbalance) between the production of reactive oxygen species – ROS (includes free radicals and peroxides) produced by most body reactions, and a biologic system's antioxidant defenses, which would allow it to easily repair the resulting damage
92
condition characterized by an imbalance between the production of free radicals (reactive oxygen species, or ROS) and the body's ability to neutralize them with antioxidants. This imbalance leads to damage of cells, proteins, and DNA, contributing to various diseases and aging processes
oxidative stress
93
what do antioxidants do
ions that take up the free radicals
94
two processes believed to go hand in hand (the two evil twins!), resulting in:
The aging process
Neurodegeneration
Diseases such as
oxidative stress and inflammation
95
what can oxidative stress and inflammation result in
The aging process
Neurodegeneration
Diseases such as
diabetes
some cancers
aterosclerosis
parkinsons
alzheimers
96
what is aterosclerosis
chronic condition characterized by the buildup of plaques within the walls of arteries, leading to the narrowing and hardening of these blood vessels. This process can significantly impede blood flow and is a major underlying cause of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral artery disease.
97
Severe oxidative stress may cause cell death by
necrosis
98
Moderate oxidation can trigger
apoptosis
99
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are not always harmful and can be beneficial, such as
ROS is used by the immune system to attack and kill pathogens
ROS is used in cell signaling
100
shuffling gate, difficulty starting and stopping movements, neurodegenerative, cognitive impairment over time
parkinsons
101
necrosis vs apoptosis
passive, accidental cell death with subsequent inflammation
active, programmed cell death that avoids eliciting inflammation
102
over production of ROS can cause
cell damage
103
what is glutathione
naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins such as free radicals
104
found it aud/vestib system and is a protectant
Glutathione
105
All cells in the body are capable of producing, but synthesis in the liver is essential
glutathione
106
Reduced glutathione (GSH) has a strong ______-donating character
electron
107
As electrons are lost in glutathione, the molecule becomes ______
oxidized
108
Inflammation is part of the complex biological immune response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as
pathogens (e.g. bacteria and virus)
physical trauma
chemical trauma (acid spill, etc.)
109
what is the function of the immune system
white knights of the body
protect from everything
110
what happens when the immune system goes ary and attacks itself
autoimmune disorders
111
what are autoimmune disorders
autoimmune - MS, cogan’s, lupus, autoimmune inner ear disease, hashimotos (first diagnosed), rheumatoid arthritis, type i diabetes
112
necessary response that allows the body to destroy invading organisms and repair itself (wound healing)
inflammation
immune response
113
inflammatory response can stays in heightened response resulting in issues like cancers, reduced immunity etc.
normally self limiting
results in chronic inflammatory diseases
114
what is chronic inflammation
pathological condition characterized by continued active inflammation response and tissue destruction
115
The chronic inflammatory process induces ______ and reduces ________capacity
oxidative stress
cellular antioxidant
116
Overproduced free radicals react with cell membrane fatty acids and proteins impairing their function permanently
In addition, free radicals can lead to
mutation and dna damage
117
Risk factors of chronic inflammation, to name a few, include
Hypoxia (COPD?), obesity, hyperglycemia, and smoking
118
There is now general consensus, that chronic inflammation can be a predisposing factor for
some cancers and accelerated aging
119
It is also believed to play a serious role in a wide variety of age-related diseases including
diabetes, cardiovascular, and autoimmune disorders
120
COPD
progressive lung disease characterized by chronic inflammation and obstruction of airflow in the lung
hard time breathing
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
121
what is hypoxia
lack of o2
122
most common cause of COPD
smoking
123
what is accelerated aging
unhealthy aging, looks older than their age
124
one of the triggers for autoimmune disorders
chronic inflammation & high ROS in the body
125
Cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness
Vasodilation
Increased blood flow
Swelling
Edema, caused by accumulation of fluid outside blood vessels
Heat
Increased blood flow to the area
Fever is brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation and contributes to the rise in temperature at the injury site
Pain
Distortion of tissues caused by edema
Chemical mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins
Loss of function
Because of pain or severe swelling that prevents movement
126
redness
because of vasodilation
increased blood flow to the area
ex: mosquito bite (redness, bump)
127
swelling
Edema, caused by accumulation of fluid outside blood vessels
tissue injury causes cells to ooze fluids outside itself resulting in this
128
heat
Increased blood flow to the area
Fever is brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation and contributes to the rise in temperature at the injury site
fever is inflammation
increased blood flow causing heat
129
pain
Distortion of tissues caused by edema
Chemical mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins
without it, wouldn't pay attention to the body or know if something was wrong
lets us know there is a problem
a lot of it could be pressure
130
loss of function
Because of pain or severe swelling that prevents movement
papercut - dont want to exacerbate it so you baby it
you dont want to or cannot use that area
131
what are enzymes
catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells
132
almost all enzymes are
proteins
133
waht results in enzyme that can do actions
Organization of proteins into the 3-D structures
134
Molecules at the beginning of the process
substrates
135
In enzymatic reactions
The enzyme converts substrates into different molecules, and these are called the products
136
An enzyme must briefly unite with at least one of the
reactants
137
Enzymes end in …ase, of the name of compounds that they act on
true
138
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Enzyme and substrates can have specific shapes such that an enzyme may be specific for a specific substrate
If the enzyme and substrate shapers don’t match, a reaction may not occur
Or the enzyme can slightly modify its shape to accommodate several substrates
139
Enzyme activity can be affected by
inhibitors and activators
140
molecules that decrease enzyme activity
inhibitors
141
molecules that increase enzyme activity
activators
142
Enzyme activity also is affected by
Temperature, chemical environment (e.g. pH), and the concentration of the substrate
143
Some enzymes are used commercially, for example
In the synthesis of antibiotics
Household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions
Enzymes in biological laundry detergent break down protein or fat stains on clothes
Enzymes in meat tenderizers break down proteins making the meat easier to chew
144
what is a receptor
protein molecule embedded in the cell surface or in the cytoplasm, which allows for communication between the cell and the world outside the cell
145
what is the function of a receptor
allows extracellular molecules such as hormones, neurotransmitters, toxins, or drugs to attach to it resulting in a change in the cell function
146
any drugs and poisons are enzyme ___
inhibitors
147
extracellular molecules are also called
ligands
148
receptor-ligand binding occurs by
ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals forces
149
Some ligands (including drugs) just block receptors without resulting in any response
For example,
calcium channel “blocker” drugs act like plugs and are often used to treat hypertension
150
is a recptor a protein
yes
151
anything not part of the cell
ligand
152
receptor vs ligand
receptor - in the cell
ligand - outside of the cell (can be in the body or food or medication)
153
one cell membrane only has one receptor
FALSE
they span the cell membrane
154
what is a hormone
chemical substance, usually a peptide or steroid, produced and released by one set of cells and conveyed by the bloodstream to another to effect physiological activity, such as growth or metabolism
chemical messengers that transports a signal from one cell to another
155
do hormones need a large amount to alter cell metabolism
no
Hormones are powerful and only a small amount of a hormone is required to alter cell metabolism
156
hormones are produced in one structure and carried by the bloodstream to other structures
true
157
what hormone do we use in audiology?
corticosteroids
158
ex of hormones
Thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone
159
what hormone do we use in audiology?
corticosteroids
160
what is a NT
chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body
161
neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal after an action potential has reached the synapse
YES
162
what is reuptake
one cell releases it and the other cells takes it
the neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor site and is reabsorbed by the neuron
163
how many NT exist
Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified
164
which NT is lacking in parkinsons
dopamine
165
Neurotransmitters can be classified by
function
166
neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron
bring about an action
Excitatory neurotransmitters
167
neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron
inhibitory NT
168
Major excitatory neurotransmitters include
epinephrine and norepinephrine
169
what is adrenaline
epinephrine
170
ome neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present
true
171
Major inhibitory neurotransmitters include
serotonin and GABA
172
voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)
acetycholine
173
wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway
Norepinephrine
174
voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
dopamine
175
memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT)
176
inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
177
spinal reflexes and motor behavior
Glycine
178
excitatory stimulation
glutamate
179
increase likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential
Excitatory neurotransmitters
180
which disease is seratonin involved in
depression
181
decrease the likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential
inhibitory neurotransmitters
182
substance, other than a neurotransmitter, released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities
neuromodulator
183
produce a more diffuse response, and are released throughout the central nervous system
neuromodulator
184
play a role in sensory transmission, especially pain
neuromodulators
185
modulates pain
substance P
186
involved in addiction
dopamine and nicotine
187
Some organs can secrete chemicals that work close to them
These chemicals work locally and are not released into the systemic circulation
local chemicals
188
Organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses - allergies
histamine
189
A group of hormone-like lipids compounds made at the site of tissue damage or infection
prostaglandins
190
prostaglandins are involved in dealing with injury and illness, controlling processes such as
Inflammation
Blood flow
Formation of blood clots
Induction of labor
191
not a true hormone but are hormone like
Prostaglandins
192
both in the immune system and involved in the local chemicals
histamine
prostaglandins
193
why should we study pharmacology as aud
There are ~2,000 drugs and > 400 side effects that could impact the audiologic/vestibular system, it’s evaluation/management, i.e.,
Obtaining an accurate case history and/or test results, which might lead to a misdiagnosis of auditory-vestibular problems
194
Adverse drug reactions that can affect auditory-vestibular systems
Hearing loss
Tinnitus
Vestibular dysfunction (for several drug classes)
vertigo, dizziness, disbalance, ataxia, and abnormal eye movements
Cognitive issues
Confusion, short- and long-term memory deficit, delirium, & dementia, which may affect processing of auditory information and poor WRS
Combination of the above symptoms
195
when you have VOR dysfunction?
oscillopsia - environment jumps with you
196
abnormal eye movements?
nystagmus
197
Audiologists can be a valuable resource to patients and other health care professionals to
determine if an auditory-vestibular manifestation may be caused by a chemical such as a drug
198
Audiologists need to have the knowledge base to
recognize and prevent an ototoxic effect of a chemical
to recognize and manage an ototoxic effect once it has occurred
199
Test inaccuracies due to patient confusion/cognitive deficits may be caused by adverse effects of medication and also can affect test-retest reliability
true
200
Pharmacological case history begins with
What medications are you currently taking (dose and frequency)?
What condition is this medication being taken for?
How long have you been taking these medication(s)
201
why is the question How long have you been taking these medication important
important to establish a time-line between the onset of the use of the medication and presentation of symptoms
For e.g., if dizziness, tinnitus, or hearing loss occurred within a short time after patient started taking the medicine it helps rule out a medical pathology as a cause of the symptoms
202
how do you prevent an ototoxic event
if you know they are taking this, let physician know it is ototoxic and think about changing the medication
203
what do you do after it has occured
monitor it long term
usually progressive ototoxic so hl will progress
