Lecture 10: Global Connections and Solutions Flashcards

Question

US Water Law: A complex issue

Answer 1

``` • Water ownership in the eastern US is based on riparian rights • Water law in the west is a complex system of “prior appropriation”. • The two major concepts are: 1. a water right is a right to the use of the water; the right is acquired by appropriation; and 2. an appropriation is the act of diverting water from its source and applying it to a beneficial use. US Water Law: A complex issue • The earliest water users have priority over later appropriators during times of water shortage. • Public waters are to be used for a useful or beneficial purpose. • The appropriator can use only the amount of water presently needed, allowing excess water to remain in the stream. • Once the water has served its beneficial use, any waste or return flow must be returned to the stream. ```

Answer 2

• If a realistic price should be paid for water, what should that price be, and who should pay it? • Advocates of water management through pricing assume that water demand is responsive to price changes. • However, others argue that water demand functions are so inelastic that price rises will only increase bills and that only direct rationing or promoting the adoption of water-saving devices can affect consumption. • The responsiveness of demand to a change in price is measured by the price elasticity of demand, which is defined as the percentage change in demand divided by the percentage change in price. • The price elasticity of drinking water demand by urban households is typically low. In European countries it ranges between -0.1 and -0.25. In Australia and the United States price elasticity is higher: -0.1 and -0.4.

Answer 3

• A clear understanding of water use patterns and the factors that affect water consumption is critical to the effective management of water supply and effective design of related public policies, including pricing • Water use patterns are highly complex processes that are influenced by many factors, including • seasonal variability and water availability • water supply restrictions • tariff structure and pricing • household characteristics • attitudes and intentions regarding water conservation. • Most studies have focused on water demand in urban regions. • Demand in rural households of developing countries, where traditional and cultural influence on water consumption is expected, is not well understood.

Answer 4

• Prices signal value to consumers and help determine whether consumers use water efficiently. If prices are too low, consumers will use too much water. • It is also essential that the pricing of water services covers the costs of providing service, for both operations and maintenance and capital expenses. • Full cost pricing factors all costs into prices, including past and future, operations, maintenance, and capital costs. • Some pricing structures encourage conservation, and some do the opposite

Answer 5

• Pricing decisions involve considerations of equity as well as efficiency and conservation – links back to human rights • Low-income households, especially those served by highcost systems, may face affordability problems if prices are raised. • To alleviate these hardships, communities can offer pricing structures that mitigate impacts on low-income households. • The most common example is "lifeline rates," where lowincome households are charged lower rates on nondiscretionary water consumption (the minimum sanitary requirement), and higher rates on water consumed beyond that amount

Answer 6

• OECD countries – about half use linear rates, and half use increasing block tariffs • Some countries/cities still use decreasing block tariffs, particularly in the US • Developing/transitioning economies use a similar mix but the prevalence of increasing block tariffs in places like subSaharan Africa is probably underestimated

Answer 7

Solving water insecurity is a political issue (and social, economic and env. Issue) • Different players have conflicting views on water security • One player may have quite complex views; most Governments will have departments wanting conservation as opposed to development • Identifying the ‘stakeholders’ in any particular case study is vital, and then the role of the ‘gatekeepers’ who wield power. ``` Political: water is a human need • International organisations e.g. UN • Government • Regional & local councils • Lobbyists & pressure groups ``` ``` Economic • International: World Bank & IMF • TNCs and developers • Businesses and users ``` ``` Social: water is a human right • Individuals • Residents • Consumers land owners, health officials, NGOs like Water Aid ``` Environmental • Conservationists • Scientists & planners

Answer 8

* Water insecurity and conflicts can be managed in a range of different ways * There is a spectrum of different management strategies * Some are sustainable as they balance ecological and human needs bb

Answer 9

Traditional ‘hard’ engineering • Dams; currently 845000 of which 5000 classed as megadams. The aim is to increase natural storage capacity by artificial reservoirs. Rivers most at risk at present: Yangtze, Amazon, Danube and many in the Himalayas • Channels, seen in most arid/semi arid countries whatever their economic status, e.g. Jonglei Canal on the Nile • Pipelines e.g. Australia and California Aqueduct and snowy Mountains scheme Australia • Desalination plants e.g. in Middle East • Recharging schemes for depleted aquifers, e.g. North London Artificial recharge Scheme and Long Island New York Softer more environmentally and ethically responsible approaches • Water conservation e.g. targeted drip irrigation on plants in Ethiopia, includes water harvesting • Water restoration e.g. Northern Aral Sea, and on smaller scale river Colne in UK • Integrated WR basin management, especially if bottom up and community involved. • The 4 Rs: i.e. an attitudinal fix: Reduce, Respect, Reuse, Renew..... Newer hard technologies • Tankers to transport water e.g. Turkey to Israel • Osmosis membranes filtering salt from brackish water e.g. Israel (the Ashkelon plant produces 15% of domestic demand). Also in California, Spain and China • Fertigation: fertiliser and water drip feeding of crops, as in Israel ``` Specific Technologies seen as appropriate / intermediate with less negative externalities • Water harvesting of grey water e.g. Belize • Micro dams serving villages e.g. Nepal • Water meters to reduce use e.g. UK • Composting latrines – seen in National Trust properties in UK to Mumbai slums ```

Answer 10

``` • Water management often focuses on large scale, technologically advanced megaprojects • These often have complex costs and benefits • Water conservation and restoration of supply have a role • Small scale, bottom-up schemes are likely to be important in the developing world • However, unless duplicated on large scale may be ineffective for longer term economic growth ``` ``` A solution? Basic technology and information is channelled through an NGO (GLOWS global water for sustainability project) Methods: 1. Increasing simple low tech, appropriate and intermediate solutions to increase storage: • Increased rainwater harvesting • Improved storage system at a family scale: Taankas: 3 m in diameter, 3-4 m deep, 20,000 litres 2. Using colourful drama performed by trained locals to villagers to illustrate the advantages of working cooperatively with other families and villages to reduce desertification and pollution of ground water since aquifers are a shared - if an unseen resource (see photograph) ``` The problem: The River Wakal area of Rajasthan in NW India is one of the driest and poorest areas in India. Subsistence agriculture dominates. 96% of rainfall is from the 3-4 month monsoon (late June through September.) and the traditional methods of using groundwater and conserving surface water are falling short of demands

Answer 11

• The concept of virtual, or embedded, water was first developed as a way of understanding how water scarce countries could provide food, clothing and other water intensive goods to their inhabitants. • The global trade in goods has allowed countries with limited water resources to rely on the water resources in other countries to meet the needs of their inhabitants. • The drawback is that national policy makers in water-scarce countries have to look at trade offs in the economic benefits and food security risks of exporting low water use, high-value crops versus producing high water use, low value cereals for feeding the population.

Answer 12

Water Resources • Water is a fundamental need but not evenly distributed • Factors influencing geography of supply: • Physical: surface, groundwater, desalinisation • Human: demand, management, mismanagement • Increasing demand not matched by supply = Water Gap • Implications for human well being - which is why it is named in the SDGs • Demand from various users – Nexus issues • Water resources are often transboundary Water Futures Water stress and scarcity are projected to increase because: • Climate change will make some areas more arid and rainfall more unreliable • Glacial water sources will reduce due to climate change • Unsustainable use of some supplies will decrease their quality and quantity • Demand will rise due to population and economic growth • Water wars will lead to winners and losers in water supp Water Conflict • Potential conflicts = high both local & international • Resource use often exceeds recharge capacity leading to long term degradation • Future is in doubt because of unsustainable use + climate change • Vulnerable populations most at risk • Management strategies to ensure supply require cooperation of many different players = changes in way water is valued & used ``` Therefore, there are alternative futures – It all depends on the decisions the players make .... and climate change, population trends, energy security, politics, bridging the development gap etc … ```