LECTURE 11 - Reasoning/Problem-Solving Flashcards
1
Q
what are inductive and deductive reasoning?
A
- inductive: involves using specific observations, experiences, and real examples to infer general theories about the world
- deductive: involves moving from general knowledge and principles to more specific knowledge and examples
2
Q
when do we use inductive reasoning in research?
A
- when we base a hypothesis, theory, or conclusion on a single observation or series of single observations
- or when one single observation is used as a confirmation of a theory or hypothesis
3
Q
in what way can inductive reasoning be problematic?
A
example scenario…
* all the swans we see are white, therefore all swans are white
* but this is not the case, we used past experience to make predictions about novel cases
4
Q
what is property induction?
A
- when we generalize properties or features from one example of a category to another or to all members of a category
- ex. the sum of two even numbers is always even
5
Q
what is premise-conclusion similarity?
A
we are generally more likely to accept a conclusion if the premise is similar to the conclusion
6
Q
what is premise typicality?
A
we are generally more likely to accept a conclusion if the premise is about a typical representative of a category
7
Q
what is premise diversity?
A
we are generally more likely to accept a conclusion if the premise includes aspects of diversity
8
Q
what is premise monotonicity?
A
we are generally more likely to accept a conclusion if the premise includes many different examples
9
Q
what is modus ponens?
A
- “affirming the antecedent”
- a form of deductive reasoning
- where if you have an “if-then” statement (P->Q), and the antecedent P is true, then you can conclude with certainty that the consequent Q is also true
example:
* if it rains, then the ground gets wet
* it rains, therefore, the ground gets wet
10
Q
what is modus tollens?
A
- “denying the consequent”
- could be considered as the opposite of modus ponens
- form of deductive reasoning
- if a conditional statement (P->Q) is true and the consequent (Q) is false, then the antecedent (P) must also be false
11
Q
what is denial of the antecendent?
A
- you cannot conclude that if P is false, then Q is false
- this is a common logical fallacy/error
- “henrietta is not a chicken, so henrietta lays no eggs” this is wrong
12
Q
what is affirmation of the consequent?
A
- you cannot conclude that if Q is true, P is true as well
- another common logical fallacy/error
- “henrietta lays eggs. henrietta is a chicken” this is wrong
13
Q
what are syllogisms? what are their limitations?
A
- two types of deductive reasoning: modus ponens and tollens
- conclusion is drawn from two given propositions (premises)
- deductive reasoning only works if the premises are true, and we can only know if our premises are true through induction
- we can never be absolutely certain that our premises are true
14
Q
what is the Wason selection task?
A
- conditional rule: if there is a vowel on one side of the card, then there is an even number on the other side of the card
- modus ponens (confirming the rule): turning over the E checks if a vowel has an even number, this supports the rule
- modus tollens (falsifying the rule): turning over the 7 checks if an odd number has a vowel, this could disprove the rule
- people often turn over 4 instead of 7, even though 4 can’t disprove the rule, this is confirmation bias
15
Q
what is confirmation bias?
A
- favouring of evidence that supports one’s beliefs, expectations, or hypotheses
- in the Wason selection task, people tend to choose the card that is consistent with their hypothesis
16
Q
what is causal reasoning?
A
- ability to understand why something happens, to determine the causes of specific effects
- causal relationships have directionality, the causes precede effects
- causal launching: causation associated with direction
17
Q
why is causal reasoning difficult?
A
- causes are usually probabilistic, the presence of a cause does not guarantee an effect
- causes are frequently unobservable and need to be inferred
18
Q
what cues are used to determine causal relationships?
A
- covariation: the likelihood of two events occurring together, is necessary but not sufficient to determine causation
- temporal order: the arrangement of events over time, if A occurs before B, then it is more likely that A causes B
- intervention: observing the consequences of one’s own actions, changing one event and observing the effect on another (experiments)
19
Q
what are illusory correlations?
A
- when people make connections between variables that have no relation to each other
- tend to occur for statistically infrequent events (winning an important match and linking the win to the clothing you wore)
- can lead to superstitious behaviour
20
Q
what is counterfactual reasoning?
A
- considering alternative outcomes, contrary to what has already occurred in reality
- “what if I had done X. would Y have happened?”
- important for causal reasoning because people use mental replay to understand the causes of events
- helps us understand past events and plan for future behaviours/potential outcomes
- also an important form of coping in clinical settings
21
Q
what is bayesian inference?
A
- we estimate the probability of a hypothesis being true based on the evidence at hand
- brain infers new information from material that is available
- also takes into account the way we adjust our predictions from one experience to the next
22
Q
what is problem solving?
A
- the effort directed toward finding ways to overcome obstacles in order to obtain one’s goals
- actions need to be determined and enacted in order to move from a given state to a goal state
23
Q
what is insight?
A
- the process of suddenly gaining a solution to a problem
- eye movement patterns can predict an insight moment in the “connect all the dots” task
24
Q
what is analogical reasoning?
A
- helps people find solutions by transferring their knowledge from other problems
- requires people to recognize similarities between a new problem and older problems that they know how to solve
25
what are some common heuristics used to solve problems?
* random trial-and-error: randomly selecting and applying different potential solutions until a problem is solved
* hill climbing: process of choosing one solution and then improving it to move the problem solver closer to the goal state
* means-end analysis: process of identifying the difference between the current state and goal state and creating subgoals that can be achieved more easily
26
how do specialists vs. novices solve problems differently?
* experts notice meaningful patterns not obvious to novices
* experts organize and remember (and chunk!) information in a way that reflects their deeper understanding of the material
* expert knowledge appears to be more specific and contextualized than novice knowledge
* novice problem solvers are more focused on superficial features of problem
27
what is creativity? how do we study creativity?
* refers to the generation of a novel product or idea that is useful for some purpose
* study creativity by distinguishing between factors involving the person, press, product, and
process
28
what are remote associations? how is this tested?
* creative ideas that are removed or remote from the original formulation of a problem
* remote associations tests asks participants to think of what links three specific words
* divergent thinking: ability to generate a wide range of associations from a given starting point
29
what benefit does cooperation have and what does it depend on?
* allows us to achieve a public good, an outcome that benefits a group as a whole
* cooperation depends on social norms, standards of behaviour based on widely shared beliefs about how individual group members should behave
30
what is the prisoner's dilemma game and what does it tell us?
* players have the choice to cooperate or defect, if they are the only one who cooperates, they get nothing, if they are the only one to defect, they get the biggest reward
* if they both defect, they both get less, if they both cooperate, they both get a moderate reward
* seems like the safe thing to do is to defect, but if played for multiple rounds, it leads to cooperation that maximizes profit for both people
* reveals why individuals may act selfishly instead of cooperatively
* also reveals the importance of trust, a social and emotional behaviour that is indispensable in social interactions
31
which of the following correctly describes affirmation of the consequent?
a. fallacy where we assume the antecedent to be true if the consequent is true
b. fallacy where we believe the consequent to be false if the antecedent is false
c. the consequent is always true
d. the antecedent is false if the consequent is true
e. the consequent is false if the antecedent is true
a. fallacy where we assume the antecedent to be true if the consequent is true
