Lecture 13 Flashcards
(41 cards)
Attributions
* Internal vs. External
Internal: to explaining behaviour in terms of personal factors such as traits, abilities
External: involves explaining behaviour in terms of situational or external factors, like luck, the environment, or other people’s actions
Attributions
Stability
Stability: Whether the cause of the behaviour is seen as stable: inherent traits or abilities or unstable: mood/effort
Attributions
* Fundamental Attribution Error
FAE: cognitive bias where people tend to overemphasize internal factors (dispositional causes) and underestimate external factors (situational causes) when explaining others’ behaviour
Attributions
* Defensive Attribution
- Defensive attributions are a tendency to blame (make internal attributions about) victims for their misfortunes, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way. E.g., blaming a rape victim for the clothes she wore or blaming a mugging victim for being out so late, etc..
- People use defensive attributions to create an illusion of safety and to avoid confronting the ugly reality that bad things happen to good people for no reason
Attributions
* Self-serving Bias
Self serving: tendency to attribute our own successes to internal factors (e.g., our skills or hard work) and our failures to external factors
Attributions
* Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualism: refers to cultures or social systems that prioritize the individual over the group. People in individualistic societies tend to focus on personal achievements and autonomy
Collectivism: values the needs and goals of the group over those of the individual. In collectivist cultures, behaviour is often interpreted in the context of group harmony and interdependence.
The justification of effort
If someone works hard to attain a goal, the goal will be more attractive than to the individual who achieves the same goal with no effort
Hazing
example of the Justification of Effort in action. In many groups or organizations, individuals are made to undergo tough, humiliating, or painful initiation processes (e.g., physical tasks, embarrassing rituals) before they can become part of the group. After enduring these hardships, participants often report feeling a greater sense of loyalty
Basic training
intense physical and emotional challenges faced by recruits are seen as a way to “prepare” them for the challenges ahead. After completing basic training, recruits often have a stronger attachment to their military unit, viewing the group and their accomplishments with more pride and respect
Charging Money for Pound Puppies
refers to a phenomenon observed when items or services are perceived as more valuable if people have to “pay the price” or put in effort to obtain them
“pound puppy” (a pet, often associated with lower costs in a shelter) becomes more attractive when people have to pay a fee for it
Aronson and Mills (1959) Sex Discussion Group with an Embarrassing Initiation
conducted a classic experiment to illustrate the Justification of Effort. In this study, participants were asked to undergo either a mild or severe initiation before joining a discussion group about sex. Those who endured the severe initiation rated the discussion group as more interesting and worthwhile than those who had undergone the mild initiation.
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
* Self-Presentation (Impression Management)
Self-presentation refers to the process by which people try to control the image they project to others. It’s the way individuals behave to influence how others perceive them, which often leads them to act in ways that are consistent with social expectations or personal goals.
Attitude Change via Self-Presentation: To create a favorable impression, individuals may change their attitudes to align with the behaviors they think will make them more socially acceptable or admirable
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
Self-Justification (Cognitive Dissonance)
Cognitive Dissonance refers to the mental discomfort that occurs when there is an inconsistency between one’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People are motivated to reduce this discomfort, and one way to do this is by changing their attitudes to match their behaviors.
Attitude Change via Self-Justification: When a person engages in behavior that contradicts their existing attitudes, cognitive dissonance arises. To resolve this discomfort, they may change their attitude to justify the behavior.
Why Do Behaviours Change
Attitudes?
Self-Perception
proposed by Daryl Bem) suggests that people often infer their own attitudes from their behavior. This theory posits that when people are unsure of their attitudes, they look at their actions and the context in which they occurred to infer how they must feel.
Attitude Change via Self-Perception: According to this theory, if someone engages in a behavior that they don’t initially have an attitude toward, they may change their attitude to align with the behavior after observing it
Conformity and obedience
Asch experiment vs Milgram experiment
Asch Experiment (Conformity): how people yield to social pressure to match the behavior of others. found that people often conformed to the incorrect group answers, even when the correct answer was obvious. About 37% of participants conformed to the wrong answer at least once. This demonstrated how social pressure could lead individuals to conform, even when they knew the correct answer.
Milgram experiment (obedience): wanted to understand how ordinary people could commit harmful actions. found that 65% of participants administered the highest level of shock (450 volts), even though they believed the learner was in severe distress. The results demonstrated that people tend to obey authority figures even when it conflicts with their personal morals and when they are aware that their actions are causing harm.
The difference a symbol of authority makes e.g., a lab coat
One key finding from Milgram’s experiment and other research on obedience is that symbols of authority (such as a lab coat or uniform) can increase compliance and obedience. Studies have shown that people are more likely to obey when they are in the presence of authority figures who carry symbols of power (such as uniforms, lab coats, or badges).
The Nurse’s Obedience Experiment (Less Compliance When Drug is Familiar and Consultation Is Possible)
Nurses were asked to administer an incorrect dose of medication to a patient, as instructed by a doctor over the phone. However, the nurses’ level of obedience varied depending on the situation. Familiarity with the task and the ability to seek social support (from others) can reduce obedience. This highlights that when people feel more competent or can get advice, they are more likely to resist inappropriate authority commands.
Knowledge and Social Support Increase the Likelihood of Resistance to Authority
People who are knowledgeable about a subject or situation are less likely to blindly follow authority. In the nurse’s experiment, for example, knowing the correct dosage of the medication empowered the nurse to resist an unjustified order.
Norm formation
refers to the process by which groups and societies develop and establish shared expectations or rules of behavior that are considered acceptable. These norms can govern everything from social behavior to cultural practices and rituals
Norms can be arbitrary
Norms are not always based on inherent logic or necessity. They can be arbitrary, meaning they don’t necessarily have a practical or rational foundation.
For example, the use of the right hand for greeting people (e.g., shaking hands) is arbitrary. There’s no inherent reason why this should be the case—it’s simply a social convention.
Norms can be pervasive
Norms are pervasive, meaning they influence almost every aspect of our daily lives. From the way we dress, to how we speak in public, to how we interact with others, norms shape our behavior in almost all settings.
For example, personal space norms—how close people stand to each other in different cultures—are pervasive across social interactions
Norms can be unintentional
Norms often form without anyone intentionally planning or enforcing them. Over time, behavior becomes standardized as people naturally conform to the expectations of their group or society.
For example, in a workplace, dress codes can evolve without formal rules being written. People begin to dress similarly because they observe what is considered “appropriate” attire.
Norm Violation Example
Imagine you’re in an elevator, and all the other passengers are facing forward. If you decide to face backward and stare at the back of the elevator, people may feel uncomfortable or confused. This is a norm violation because there’s an unwritten expectation that everyone in the elevator will face forward. By facing backward, you’re violating the norm of how people are expected to behave in an elevator, which can make others feel uneasy.
Categorizing self descriptions into group and non group identifications
Group Identifications: These are self-descriptions that define who we are in terms of the groups to which we belong. These groups can be based on social, cultural, professional, or demographic categories.
Non-Group Identifications: These self-descriptions reflect aspects of the self that are not tied to group membership but focus on the individual traits or personal characteristics. These are related to how we see ourselves as unique individuals, separate from larger social categories.
