Lecture 2

Question 1

I-frame

Answer 1

Focuses on individual behaviour, habits, and decision-making (e.g., nudges, personalized interventions).

You know the environment that you have to play with and you are trying to change an individual’s behaviour in that context.

I-frame interventions don’t fundamentally change the rules of the game, but make subtle adjustments to help fallible individuals play the game better.

You are not changing the policy or the structures in society, but you are changing people to behave in a situation that is already given.

Question 2

S-frame

Answer 2

Systemic approach, focusing on institutional and environmental factors (e.g., policies, systems, structures).

We are not putting all the responsibility on an individual, as a government/company we also have a responsibility to structure the situation for people so that they can behave better.

Why don’t we change the rules of the game instead of putting people in a spot where they have to change as a person?

Question 3

What kind of frame is nudging?

Answer 3

An i-frame

Question 4

Similarities and differences of the i-frame and s-frame

Answer 4

Both frames are aimed at changing behaviour, but the approach in changing someone’s behaviour is different.

Question 5

Which frame is better? The i-frame or the s-frame?

Answer 5

It is not necessary to choose either the i-frame or s-frame, they are just two perspectives that you can take. It enlarges the perspective of things that you can look at when changing behaviour.

That said, s-frame solutions, when they are possible, tend to be more effective. However, when you change the rules, it might still be helpful to add i-frame solutions as well. So, you can often combine the two.

Question 6

Wat kind of frame is posting an advertisement on social media or a billboard across the street that says “More than 1000 people under 30 have visited this shop”, and why?

Answer 6

This is an i-frame solution because it’s social proof and a nudge.

Question 7

What is the promise of nudging?

Answer 7

“Small changes can make a big difference”

Question 8

What kind of frame/approach is the following?

Giving people feedback on their energy use, you give them feedback on how much energy they use, compared to all neighbours and efficient neighbours. The idea is that if you see the difference people will want to behave as well as or better than their neighbours.

Answer 8

An i-frame

Question 9

Which frame proved much more effective in reducing smoking rates across the population?

Answer 9

The s-frame solutions.

They created an environment that helped people to stop or not start smoking.

They also made it less socially acceptable, more expensive and less convenient.

Question 10

Aim: Increasing of social engagement between employees in a company who work in cubicles.

I-frame solution: personally stimulating people to engage more with each other and the company via an app where they can see who else is in the office to meet them.

Would this type of solution alone help? If no, what would?

Answer 10

It is perhaps part of the solution.

But, taking down the walls will probably help much better. Sitting in a cubicle with walls gives little room for interaction with coworkers.

Combining s-frame and i-frame solutions is usually a good idea.

Question 11

Aim: A hardware store mostly has clients aged 50+ and they want to also attract gen-Z (<30).

They could post an advertisement on social media or a billboard across the street that says “More than 1000 people under 30 have visited this shop.”

Would this type of solution alone help? If no, what would?

Answer 11

No. It probably won’t grab your attention that much and you want the store to have something to offer you.

Based on research there is one hardware shop in the US that has a lot of gen-Z population there. They have gained popularity among gen-Z especially because they have a lot of community. They have small shops in small communities and they are very cozy, they function as neighbourhood meeting spots. They are also very visible on TikTok and they are active on social media.

This is a s-frame solution because the structure and the rules of the game are changed.

This is also a g-frame solultion because it creates a shared identity through the community.

Question 12

G-frame

Answer 12

Focusing on group memberships and associated group dynamics (e.g., interventions based on social identities).

Question 13

What was the commentary of Bingley et al. on Chater & Lowenstein, 2023?

Answer 13

“Focusing on systemic, ‘big-picture’ solutions alone will not in itself result in more effective public policy because this approach too fails to engage with these same group memberships and associated group dynamics.

They argue that behavioural scientists and policymakers need not just to resort to an s-frame, but in addition to develop and employ a g-frame – a group-level analysis.”

An s-frame is not enough, you need a third frame, the g-frame.

Question 14

What is Extinction Rebellion an example of?

Answer 14

Of how you can operationalize a g-frame solution: starting a movement/community.

Question 15

How can you accelerate behavioural change?

Answer 15

By making a distinctive movement/community with a strong identity.

Question 16

How did Extinction Rebellion (XR) become so big?

Answer 16

Their slogan “Rebel for Life”, resonated with many, making the movement inclusive and transforming scepticism into solidarity.

They have a flat hierarchy, empowering all voices and thus being inclusive.

• On the one hand being very specific, clear and different from others, distinctive, and on the other hand being inclusive and opening up to others.

They had a lot of media attention

• When you are radical, surprise people and the visuals are very distinctive, you are going to get media attention, which will increase your appeal.

Making allies is very helpful, because people that like the allies will also start to get interested.

Confronting people

• Having an enemy is a good thing when building a distinctive movement (us vs them).
• It strengthens the identity and causes more media attention

Question 17

How can every frame be used to encourage FARC guerillas to demobilize? And would it work?

Answer 17

I-frame: flyers through the jungle? No

S-frame: get rid of the jungle? No

G-frame: operation Christmas => yes

Question 18

Give an example of how g-framing can help solve behavioural problems

Answer 18

It can be used to encourage FARC guerillas to demobilize.

First: research; they interviewed FARC members that had demobilized.

Second: implementation

• Providing guerillas an opportunity to go home and celebrate Christmas with their families.
• Nine massive trees were decorated with blue Christmas lights that turned on with a motion sensory when guerillas walked by.
• Next to each tree there was a poster with the prominent slogan: “IF Christmas can come to the jungle, you can come home. Demobilize. At Christmas, everything is possible.”
• The messages on the trees were emotionally charged, aimed at reminding the guerillas of their roles as family members and love ones, rather than just soldiers or revolutionaries.
  o They tried to make the family identity more salient than the guerrilla identity.

Follow up: soccer campaigns

o They dropped footballs with the message “Demobilize. Let’s play again.”

Question 19

Why does acting in groups accelerate behaviour change?

Answer 19

1. Shared identity: group identity fosters a strong in-group identity among members, enhancing solidarity and collective efficacy.
2. Normative influence: a shared identity creates in-group norms that encourage normative behaviour, as individuals feel compelled to conform to the values of their group.
3. Cognitive reframing: participation in collective actions can shift individuals’ self-concepts, helping people view themselves as agents of change, which enhances their commitment.
4. Emotional engagement: collective events often evoke strong emotions, reinforcing participants’ connections to the cause and motivating sustained engagement.

Question 20

I-frame vs s-frame vs g-frame

Answer 20

For every problem, you can think of these three approaches.

You can combine two or three approaches.

Question 21

Need for relatedness

Answer 21

Social identity connects to the relatedness of the self-determination theory.

It is an evolutionary need, in humans and animals, because not being in a group is dangerous.

This is also why people really dislike being excluded/ostracized.

Being excluded is something that causes real physical pain (shown in brain research).

Question 22

Grooming

Answer 22

This is an example of feeling relatedness/belongingness.

Monkeys groom 20% of the time. Humans also spend 20% of their time on social contacts. Of that, 60% is spent on the 5 most important contacts.

Instead of grooming, we have alternatives that also give endorphins, which helps with relaxations, bonding with others and is a natural painkiller.

What do non-grooming animals do?

• Laugh together, dance, make music, sport, synchronize, etc.
• These all give a feeling that we belong somewhere.
• Synchronizing is something that is naturally pleasurable to us.

Question 23

The relationship between faith and happiness

Answer 23

This is an example of feeling relatedness/belongingness.

In rich countries there is no relationship between faith and happiness. However, in poor countries, believers are a little happier but this is especially the case when this has the function of creating a community. So it is important to share faith with others.

Question 24

Magh Kumbh Mela

Answer 24

This is an example of feeling relatedness/belongingness.

Huge religious event in India

The biggest event in the world

It is every 12 years

Research shows that people who go there experience a heightened well-being for at least a month after going.

Question 25

What do festivals and being in a big city have in common?

Answer 25

Going to festivals also gives the feeling that you belong. Being in a big city, feeling included and part of the city can give the same feeling of belongingness. They are both examples of feeling relatedness/belongingness.

Question 26

What is the difference between creating a movement and having a religion?

Answer 26

Creating a movement is not exactly the same as having a religion or going to a festival. Because how you feel about the latter is that you belong to the world; you feel connected to everyone around you. It is more of a transcendent experience. Being part of a very specific group (e.g., extinction rebellion) is not about being part of everything, but being part of a specific group and defining the groups that you do not belong to. It is us versus them. But, it does gives a sense of belonging. It gives someone an identity.

Question 27

Social identity

Answer 27

A person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). “us” vs. “them”

Question 28

Where can you derive your identity from?

Answer 28

- Family/friends - Objects/possessions - Creations - Choices - Values - Beliefs - Appearance - Ethnicity - Practices/habits - Work hobbies - Interests

Question 29

What is important to keep in mind about a social identity?

Answer 29

Many of us have multiple identities and it depends on the context (i.e., where you are and what you are thinking about) which of these identities is most salient. The identity that is salient will affect your behaviour in the moment.

Question 30

Give an example of an identity

Answer 30

- Havermelk elite (oat milk elite). - Hermès is known for their very strong identity. They don’t do a lot of marketing but make very exclusive bags and clothing. People who are Hermès fans feel a strong identity with them.

Question 31

How are strong social identities created?

Answer 31

Optimal distinctiveness

Question 32

What is a theory on what a distinctive identity is?

Answer 32

The optimal distinctiveness theory

Question 33

The optimal distinctiveness theory

Answer 33

An identity that we feel very strongly about has a good balance between being similar to peers, but also not too much. We don’t want to be too mainstream. You want to be part of a group but you should also be different. You can look at this in two levels: - The group that you are a part of (e.g., Extinction Rebellion) - Within a group; you as a member of a group (e.g., you in your family)

Question 34

Give examples of how brands/organisations use the optimal distinctiveness theory

Answer 34

They use ads: - E.g., “It’s not just good to be different; it’s better to be different. Express yourself with ...” - E.g., Apple: “Join us. Be you.” - E.g., Pandora: ‘You’re different. Your music should be too.”

Question 35

Tenets of Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Brewer, 1991)

Answer 35

1. We identify most with social groups that optimally balance differentiation of the self and assimilation with others. 2. We identify with these groups even if they are viewed negatively by others (although we prefer positive group identities). 3. Distinctiveness of a given social identity is context-specific. 4. What we consider optimal depends on individual differences in the strength of opposing drives for assimilation and differentiation (based on cultural norms, individual socialization, and recent experience).

Question 36

We identify most with social groups that optimally balance differentiation of the self and assimilation with others.

Answer 36

A tenet of the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory. Explains the appeal of rising stars, outsiders andwhy we like upcoming things; trends. - It makes you feel part of something distinctive, something that is not mainstream. People also don’t want to be too distinctive - E.g., Greta Thunberg is seen as a person, she is very distinctive from the other climate groups. She sometimes complains about how people are talking about her and not her goals and the problem. We want a balance between being different and being the same.

Question 37

Leonardelli & Loyd (2016): painting preferences classification task

Answer 37

An example of the first tenet of the Optimal Distinctivenes Theory. After the participants performed the task, they gave the participants different feedback: “The results of prior research have shown that roughly (20%, 45%, 55%, or 80%) of the population is classified into the (smaller/larger) Klee group, whereas (80%, 55%, 45%, or 20%) of the population is classified into the (larger, smaller) Kandinsky group.” - Some people got the feedback that their art preference is distinctive and others got the feedback that they are part of the majority. Leonardelli & Loyd (2016) – Results - 20% minority was perceived as most optimally distinctive (e.g., “Which group ‘stands out’ more?”; “In which group are members more associated with each other?”). - 20% group was perceived as having highest interpersonal trust (e.g., “[Klee/Kandinsky] group members trust other members of their group”). - Participants preferred the 20% group in this context. This doesn’t mean that in all situations people prefer to be in the 20% group. The main point is that people want to be distinctive and not the main stream.

Question 38

We identify with these groups even if they are viewed negatively by others (although we prefer positive group identities).

Answer 38

A tenet of the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory. We prefer being a part of a positive identity, but you can’t always choose what group you are part of, so then you stand for it. - E.g., if you were born and raised in a particular context, are a certain colour or have a certain romantic interest. Example: Minority groups often emphasize ethnic identity, even if societal evaluations of these groups are not always favourable.

Question 39

Distinctiveness of a given social identity is context-specific.

Answer 39

A tenet of the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory. Where we are and what happens in the moment will determine which of your identities is salient.

Question 40

Leszczensky et al. (2018): Ethnic pride in secondary-school children depends on classroom composition.

Answer 40

They looked at classrooms with children of different ethnic identities. They found that students were the most proud of their ethnic identity if they were in a classroom where 50% had the same ethnic identity as them. No more and no less. This is a different percentage than the 20% of the Kandinsky group, this shows that the percentage differs per context.

Question 41

What we consider optimal depends on individual differences in the strength of opposing drives for assimilation and differentiation (based on cultural norms, individual socialization, and recent experience).

Answer 41

A tenet of the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory. We all have drives to be different and we all have the drive to be the same, but depending on your culture, upbringing, socialization etc., that might differ from person to person. E.g., Whether someone grew up in an individualistic culture or a collectivistic culture determines to what extent we feel happy or proud of being distinctive versus similar.

Question 42

How can you build strong social identities?

Answer 42

Give people in a group opportunities for identity signalling. - Strong brands provide customers with the opportunity to signal (i.e., express) their identity to themselves and others, e.g., via identifiable events, designs, symbols, and messages. Creating and emphasizing a common in-group. Strengthening in-group cohesion through contrast. - E.g., defining what you are not, creating differentiation and a sense of exclusivity. Finding allies. Collaborating with other brands, causes or artists can positively affect the social identity of consumers/followers. - E.g., when XR connected with visual artists and designers, supporters could see themselves as part of a creative, forward-thinking movement, strengthening their group identification. It also broadened the appeal of XR to new individuals who might not otherwise engage with environmental activism. Important: allies need to fit with the core values. - E.g., if you are a climate movement, there are companies that you would not want to be with allies with.

Question 43

Give examples of how you can create and emphasize a common in-group

Answer 43

- Defining and embodying clear, authentic values. - Establishing a unique visual and communication style. - Building a community with shared events, identifying products or experiences that people can engage in to confirm and signal their identity. - Using narratives, slogans and (brand) stories to connect with emotions and cultural context. - Finding allies that align with the core values, strengthen social identity and help to connect with new groups and members.

Question 44

Social identity switching

Answer 44

Making a different group membership salient (e.g., making family salient instead of FARC).