Lecture 2

Question 1

what are the two aims in developmental psychology

Answer 1

What develops and how

Question 2

What are the two types of causal factors

Answer 2

1) Necessary causal factors (must be present for outcome)

2) Sufficient causal factors (factors alone enough to cause outcome)

Question 3

What are 3 examples of developmental research designs

Answer 3

1) Cross-sectional research
2) Longitudinal research
3) Genetically sensitive research design

Question 4

Explain cross-sectional research

Answer 4

• research conducted single point in time, comparing performance in different age groups
• important = demonstrate covariation
• cant tell us if theory of causality holds as describes patterns fo rships at time points
• need to look at other factors to see whats causing links

Question 5

Explain longitudinal research

Answer 5

• measures same individuals at more than one point in time. - studies the course of development (looking at stability, within-person)

Question 6

Explain genetically sensitive research designs

Answer 6

• behaviour genetics: understand genetic and environmental origins of indiv. differences in cognition and behaviour. (focuses on 1% variation)

Question 7

Give 2 examples of genetics in genetically sensitive research designs

Answer 7

• Quantitative genetics: estimate genetic and enviro influence on individual differences in pop e.g. twin studies
• Molecular gentics: identify specific DNA variants assoicated with traits

Question 8

What are the 3 most common longitudinal designs

Answer 8

• panel studies (one group studied over time)
• Multiple cohort studies/cohort sequential studies (same age cohort in different years to compare e.g. 5yr olds in 2000 and 2010)
• intervention studies (same people but manipulate circumstances = only one showing causal connections)

Question 9

what is heritability?

Answer 9

The proportion of variance between individuals that can be explained by inherited DNA differences (within the 1% genes). Describes population at particular point in time.

Question 10

How does heritability differ from innate

Answer 10

innate would show 0 heritability because are universal, innate non-varying features

Question 11

What does ACE stand for

Answer 11

A: Addicitive genetic effect (heritability from MZ/DZ studies)
C: Common environment (non-genetic influence affecting children in same household)
E: Non-shared environment (experiences unique to individual)

Question 12

Explain correlations within twin studies

Answer 12

R = 1.00 = no differences between twins
R = 0.00 = no similarities between twins

Question 13

How do you calculate difference in correlations between MZ and DZ twins to work out heritability?

Answer 13

heritabiltiy = (rmz - rdz) x 2

Question 14

what are statistics on genetic similarities among family members

Answer 14

• MZ twins share 100% genes
• DZ twins share 50%
• Siblings share 50%
• half-siblings share 25%
• biological parents and children share 50%

Geno wont change but expression can

Question 15

Explain twin studies as a natural biological experiement

Answer 15

• 1% births = twins
• 1/3 twin births are MZ (share 100%)
• If MZ twins have more similar scores then DZ twins on trait then shows trait is heritable

Question 16

Explain DNA arrays

Answer 16

= capable of genotyping one million DNA variants at a time. indiv. genes have small effects so complex behaviour is reuslt of several genes acting together.

Question 17

Define association studies

Answer 17

are individuals with particular trait more likely to have a particular genetic allele?

Question 18

what is a problem with uk adoption studies vs non adoptive design?

Answer 18

• average age adoption = 4 years - already had preexposure to biological parent.
• children taken away due to drug abuse etc = prenatal exposure influences
• alternative: IVF children used

Question 19

What are some challenges of working with children/animals?

Answer 19

• consent by guardians
• language/communication skills
• motor skills (staying still)
• temperament
• attentiveness and fatigue (length and no of tasks)

Question 20

Explain ratings, questionaires and interviews (with children)

Answer 20

• yes/no bias <5yr
• performance bias (do what asked not answer q)
• validity / reliability
• desirability biases
• familiarity with target child
• failure to identify/recognise problem behaviours

Question 21

Explain observing children

Answer 21

• recording ad quanitifying overt behaviour
• lab or naturalistic settings
• structured or unstructured tasks
• coding schemes = rules that define sets of beh. and how they will be quantified to make it reliable.

Question 22

Explain the 4 main methods of coding

Answer 22

1) Global (e.g. watch 5 mins footage and give overall score based on variable)
2) Simple event (no. times event occurred)
3) Event sequential (look at sequence of event to see if something more likely to happen before something else)
4) Time-event sequential (linked to duration)

Question 23

What are benefits of experimental methods

Answer 23

• study development across range of ages
• objectivity and reliability
• controlled conditions

Question 24

what are limitations of experimental methods

Answer 24

• ecological validity
• results of preferences can be ambiguous
• between group differences

Question 25

What are 4 examples of experimental methods

Answer 25

1) Visual preferences (if look at one thing longer than other = preference & can distinguish objects are different) 2) Habituation - dishabituation (infant shown same stimuli again and again (habituates) then shown new stimuli and looking time goes up) 3) Anticipatory looking (expectations 3months old/can predict - ability to represent enviro and act in accordance with representation) 4) Violation of expectations (infants shown event either compatible or incompatible with principle. if infant understand principle then will look longer when incompatible event occurs).