Lecture 3: Questions and loaded terms

Question 1

What kind of information does direct answer give?

Answer 1

Exactly the information requested by the question, in a straightforward manner

Question 2

What is presupposition of a question?

Answer 2

A statement one becomes committed to by giving any direct answer to the question

Question 3

What are loaded questions, how do they work?

Answer 3

Loaded questions have presuppositions the other party is not committed to at the given stage of the dialogue: by asking the loaded question, one seeks to lure the other party into the trap of taking on a commitment which puts her at a disadvantage

Question 4

Loaded question are typically directed at the…

Answer 4

Audience witnessing the exchange

Question 5

The party the question is addressed to can…(3), (but overall unsuspecting audience will…(4))

Answer 5

1. Give a direct answer (unlikely) but she becomes attached to a statement she doesn’t accept
2. Not give any answer, but the audience may think that she tactically concedes the point, so they conclude that she accepts the presupposition
3. Reply, but doesn’t give direct answer, audience may think that she fudges the issue, bc she knows the presupposition is true
   (4. Take the party to be committed to the presupposed statement)

Question 6

In case of loaded questions, trick works better if trickster asks…

Answer 6

A large number of questions and includes some whose presuppositions the other party is committed to

Question 7

What do loaded complex questions include?

Answer 7

Clauses, which are linked by logical connectives (and, or, if - then)

Question 8

How do loaded complex questions work?

Answer 8

They rule out certain combinations of accepting/rejecting the clauses (or: rules out accepting/rejecting both, and: rules out accepting one and rejecting the other), they trick us into taking on a commitment by tying it to another commitment (effect may be incr. by using emotionally loaded terms in describing the options)

Question 9

Complex loaded questions are sometimes directed at…

Answer 9

The partner in the dialogue rather than the audience

Question 10

How to reply to loaded complex questions?

Answer 10

Reject presupposition, put the burden of the proof on the questioner (the loadedness of the question comes from a presupposition (statement we didn’t endorse) we didn’t commit ourselves to )

Question 11

Warnings on loaded/complex questions, presuppositions

Answer 11

1. It’s OK for a question to have a presupposition, all questions do, but it’s not OK to have presupposition the opponent doesn’t accept: that makes the question loaded
2. A question being loaded is a contextual property (cannot be decided by simply looking at the sentence), whether it’s loaded depends on whether the opponent has committed herself to a presupposition before the question was asked: if so, question is not loaded
3. It’s OK for a question to be complex (unless too complex to understand), but it’s not OK if it is also loaded

Question 12

What is an aggressive question?

Answer 12

Sets too narrow limits for the admissible answer, doesn’t give sufficient room for the other side to show that their view/decision is sound

Question 13

How to reply to an aggressive question?

Answer 13

Ask the right question and then answer it: if the convo is public and questioner is hostile, you need to reject the question openly and point out it’s unfairness so that you make clear the question was asked to push you to the wall

Question 14

What if you can’t answer a question at the dissertation defense?

Answer 14

1. In case of a sensible, relevant question: admit you can’t answer (students aware of imperfections make a better impression), you could outline how you would look for an answer, you might suggest an answer you think is most plausible (hihető)
2. In case of irrelevant question, which is not connected to your research/conclusion: indicate tactfully that the question is irrelevant, you may ask questioner to explain the connection between the question and your research

Question 14

Explain job interviews

Answer 14

A job interview is a complex logical-rhetorical exercise

Question 15

Good advice for job interviews

Answer 15

1. You want to infer from your answer how qualified you are by offering them premises from which they will conclude that you’re an excellent candidate
2. Research company and study job description bc you need to know what skills, qualifications, experience they expect (rhetorical task: adaption to audience)
3. Have stories ready to talk about yourself (rhetorical task: credibility)

Question 16

Tasks needed to be fulfilled on a job interview

Answer 16

Logical task: your answers should support sound inferences to your skills, etc
Rhetorical task: adaption to the audience, your skills, qualifications, experiences should be the ones the company is looking for (research) + credibility: they have to believe what you say (stories about yourself)

Question 17

‘Why do you want this job?’ is asked on job interviews to find out…

Answer 17

Whether you understand the position you’re applying for
Whether you’re enthusiastic about this position
Whether your goals and experience align with this position

Question 18

‘What is your greatest weakness?’ question on job interviews: dilemma, solution

Answer 18

Dilemma: If you don’t admit your weaknesses (mistakes, bad decisions, failures, conflicts) you’re not credible, but if you admit them you provide a reason not to get hired
Solution: Turn the weakness into a success story

Question 18

How to prepare for job interviews

Answer 18

1. Read most frequent job interview questions
2. Identify what they want to find out with the questions
3. Review your skills, qualifications and experiences relevant for the given question
4. Pick those which confirm that you are a great candidate for the given position at company
5. Pick 1 or 2 which are especially important for the company and about which you have a good story to tell
6. If their relevance is not too obvious, prepare a sentence for clarification

Question 19

What are ad hominem replies?

Answer 19

They are often irrelevant and don’t answer the question at all

Question 20

Are all longwinded replies that don’t address the question irrelevant?

Answer 20

No, e.g. the president of football club asked about football player’s salary: explain how much is normally payed to footballers in this category, why this player is exceptionally important for team, their efforts to procure resources before naming amount that would otherwise strike someone as horrendous

Question 21

Loaded term characteristics

Answer 21

Loaded terms suggest a positive/negative attitude
Suggested attitudes form a continuum
In some cases there is no neutral term (no term that is not loaded)

Question 22

Common understanding of loaded terms in case of euphemism and pejorative/taboo expressions (e.g. slim-skinny)

Answer 22

1. Positively/negatively loaded terms agree in their meaning but differ in their connotations
2. Positively/negatively loaded terms agree in their factual/cognitive meaning but differ in their emotive meaning

Question 23

Common understanding of loaded terms in other cases may have…

Answer 23

Slightly different meanings, that’s why there are different attitudes

Question 24

Those with different attitudes tend to…

Answer 24

Disagree about the facts as well

Question 25

What is euphemism?

Answer 25

Expression with the same meaning but without the negative connotation/emotive meaning (euphemism: to pass away, direct expression: to die): sometimes new words are introduced in order to replace ones associated with negative attitudes (old: mentally retarded, new: mentally disabled)

Question 26

Why loaded terms can be dangerous?

Answer 26

1. Can be used to hide the fact that speaker is making a contentious claim that is open to challenge
2. The contentious claim being hidden, it won’t be challenged
3. If it’s not challenged, one doesn’t have to argue for it
4. So using a loaded term is a way to get a claim accepted without having to argue for it
   Briefly: offer a way to escape the burden of proof

Question 27

Using loaded terms in some cases can be…

Answer 27

Perfectly legitimate

Question 28

Loaded/not loaded terms can be both equally used to…

Answer 28

Lie and deceive

Question 29

Loaded terms rarely influence those who…

Answer 29

Consciously reject the attitude suggested

Question 30

Loaded terms are more likely to affect those who…

Answer 30

Have no opinion on the matter

Question 31

How to deal with loaded terms

Answer 31

1. You should recognise loaded language
2. Be aware that the one using it has a burden of proof
3. When in doubt/when you’re worried that your opponent may succeed in influencing audience demand proof