Lecture 3 - Reinforcement

Question 1

What is extinction?

Answer 1

= withholding the reinforcers that maintain a target behaviour - way of reducing behaviour

Question 2

How does extinction work?

Answer 2

Operant behaviour is maintained by its consequences. Therefore, preventing the consequences that maintain a behavior should weaken it.

Question 3

What are the rules for extinction? x4

Answer 3

1. Define target behaviour
2. Identify reinforcers that maintain target behaviour
3. Withhold all reinforcer(s) of target behaviour: ensure you can withdraw reinforcer it EVERY TIME
4. Monitor results: if does not work – change reinforcement

Question 4

What can occasional reinforcement cause? (issue of not completing Step 3)

Answer 4

Occasional reinforcement can cause partial reinforcement effect

Question 5

Problems with extinction? x4

Answer 5

1. Uncontrolled environment (reinforcement can come from somewhere else or when behavior is naturally reinforcing)
2. It can be slow (can be dangerous/makes people give up)
3. Extinction bursts (ST can increase behaviour)
4. Spontaneous recovery (when target behaviour suddenly reappears later (behaviour must not be
   reinforced in way it was prior to extinction procedure - critical period)

Question 6

Extinction study example

Answer 6

Example: France and Hudson (1990)
-Use extinction to help child sleep through night
-Assume parental attention reinforces behaviour of waking up + screaming – parents told not to do so as a consequence (cameras on child are used – only enter room if not safe)
-After extinction procedure – night waking reduced to 0! – was pretty high before

Question 7

Limitations of France and Hudson (1990) - EXTINCTION study example

Answer 7

-May teach the child that they cannot trust + reach out to their parental figure - no soothing is give = UNETHICAL
o Impacts relationship that exists between parent + child
-Lack of sleep change show you interact with people etc. – being knackered parent may impact ability to develop secure attachment with the child

Question 8

What is reinforcement?

Answer 8

the procedure of providing consequences for a behaviour that increase or maintain the frequency of that behaviour
- Add reinforcer at target behaviour (deficit) to increase the chances of this behaviour happening in the future

Question 9

What is a reinforcer?

Answer 9

an event that, when made contingent on a behaviour, increases/maintains the frequency of that behaviour

Question 10

What is a positive reinforcer?

Answer 10

a reinforcing event in which something is added following a behaviour

Question 11

What is a negative reinforcer?

Answer 11

A reinforcing event in which something is removed following a behaviour
- Problem in LT sometimes – likely to not be able to go to social events, for example (some therapies – e.g., ACT – reduce avoidance)

Question 12

Other ways of categorising reinforcers + definitions? x3

Answer 12

1. Primary reinforcers - reinforcers that are not dependent on their association with other reinforcers – environmental stimuli that relate to human needs – relate to biological processes
2. Secondary/conditioned reinforcers - reinforcers that are dependent on their association with other reinforcers
3. Contrived reinforcers - natural reinforcers

Question 13

Rules for using reinforcement x4

Answer 13

1. Define target behaviour
2. Select appropriate reinforcers
3. Make reinforcers immediate + certain - contingent with ONLY target behaviour
4. Monitor results - reinforcer should follow behaviour quickly (= more effective)

Question 14

Problems with reinforcement x4

Answer 14

1. Bootleg reinforcement - access to the specified reward or to other equally reinforcing items or events without meeting the response requirements of the contingency occurs e.g., Mom says you can have a cookie after you clean your room but Dad comes home and gives you a cookie but your room isn’t clean
2. Reliance on reinforcement (BUT not tend to be the case)
3. Behavioural contrast (does it apply to other settings?)
4. Inappropriate use (accidents as a result?)

Question 15

Reinforcement study example

Answer 15

Example: Allen et al. (1974)
ABAB reversal design
-Anne who showed little interest in playing with other children but enjoys with adults
-Researcher decided only pay attention to Anne when she is paying attention to other children
- End of baseline period, teachers provide attention to Anne contingent on her playing with other children
- Attention = reinforcers – hope to change behaviour rate
o Expect no. of interactions with children to increase – does not happen! – it goes down

-Researchers then decided to CHANGE intervention – started using toy/utensil as part of the game being played as a reinforcer
o As soon as reinforcers – increased once intervention of toy being put into place = positive reinforcer
-When removed toy, amount of time Anne interacted with children, decreased + when reintroduced, went back up = good reinforcer helping Anne interact with others


Question 16

What is differential reinforcement?

Answer 16

Differential reinforcement = Any procedure that combines reinforcement and extinction (use at same time) to change the frequency of a target behaviour

Question 17

What is Differential Reinforcement of Low rate (DRL)?

Answer 17

dealing with a problem where behaviour occurs too often – provide reinforcement WHEN BEHAVIOUR OCCURS LESS OFTEN (at a lower rate) (do not want to eliminate behaviour)
E.g., a child who repeatedly washes his hands before lunch. In this case, the teacher wants the child to wash his hands, but not more than once before lunch

Question 18

What is 2. Differential Reinforcement of Alternate behaviour (DRA)?

Answer 18

this procedure entails reinforcing a behaviour that serves as a viable alternative for the problem behaviour, but is not necessarily incompatible with the problem behaviour (put target behaviour on extinction
E.g., a child who demands food from his parents. Each time the child makes a demand, his parents would ignore him. Only when the child asks politely do the parents turn, acknowledge him, and satisfy his request.

Question 19

What is 3. Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behaviour (DRI)?

Answer 19

DRI involves reinforcing behavior that can’t occur at the same time as the inappropriate behavior
For example, a teacher wants the child to remain in his seat. Each time the student leaves his seat, the behavior is ignored.

Question 20

Differential reinforcement study example

Answer 20

Example: Rekers and Lovaas (1974) (controversial figure…)
-Used differential reinforcement to reduce inappropriate gender role behaviour in 5-year-olds
-Parents release the child was being bullied – wanted to protect their child so sent child to psychologist to change this behaviour – 1970s!
- Used extinction to reduce Craig’s feminine behaviour + used reinforcement to increase masculine behaviour
- Ignore child when played with feminine toys + give attention when child plays with masculine
- Behaviours seemed to reduce by the end of intervention – differential reinforcement intervention changed behaviour…

Question 21

Rules for using Differential Reinforcement x4

Answer 21

1. Define target behaviours x2
2. Extinguish undesirable target behaviour
3. Reinforce desirable target behaviour
4. Monitor results - check intervention is producing desired results

Question 22

What is punishment?

Answer 22

= the procedure of providing consequences for a behaviour that decrease the frequency of that (dysfunctional) behaviour
- Determined by effect of behaviour – IF it does not reduce rate of behaviour, cannot be classified as a punishment

Question 23

What is a punisher?

Answer 23

An event that, when made contingent on a behaviour, decreases the frequency of that behaviour

Question 24

Types of punishment x5 (in hierarchy order)

Answer 24

1. Reprimanding - providing expressions of disproval (most frequent form)
2. Response cost - your behaviour will cost something - More effective when a reprimand is not working (depends on person + classification of a punisher only if changes rate of behaviour)
3. Time out for positive reinforcement - making removal of a person from a reinforcing situation contingent on a target behaviour
4. Over correction - making restitution for damage done on repeated performance of appropriate behaviour contingent on the target behaviour
5. Physical punishment - making brief and non-injurious contact with the skin contingent on target behaviour

Question 25

What is an issue with reprimanding? (type of punishment)

Answer 25

Not aways effective – can serve as attention which is a reinforcer to maintain rate of behaviour

Question 26

What is important regarding time out for positive reinforcement? (type of punishment)

Answer 26

When children let out of time out, not told off/scolded – they return to normal environment – no added punishment (time out = punishment) + if child misbehaves again, goes back to time out

Question 27

What are the 2 elements of overcorrection? (type of punishment)

Answer 27

2 elements:
1. restitution for damage done: if you have caused some damage, that same person will replace the damage + make further improvements
2. Involves person repeating the correct behaviour a number of times

Question 28

Physical punishment analysis (type of punishment)

Answer 28

• Not cause long lasting discomfort/damage (separates/distinguishes ABA from abuse)
• Tends to be bad for relationships + issues of human rights etc.
• This is against the law + people avoid this nowadays!

Question 29

Rules for punishment x5

Answer 29

1. +1 behaviour – thing you want to reduce & reinforce
2. Choose a type - need a balance
3. Must come straight after behaviour (Like reinforcement)
4. Punish the behaviour + take away reinforcer (use extinction as well)
5. Monitor results to see if working

Question 30

Problems with punishment?

Answer 30

1. Negative side effects - Produces undesirable emotional reactions
   - a. could lead to fear/ager toward person delivering punishment
   - b. if punisher then backs off due to aggression, person may think this aggressive behaviour works + repeats as a result
2. Inappropriate use of punishment
   - a. Use wrong punishment
   - b. Do punishment long after the behaviour
   - c. Physical punishment

• Most practices ban punishment of ABA

Question 31

Punishment study example

Answer 31

Example: Dorsey et al. (1980)

• Evaluated effects of a water spray applied to the face of someone with profound intellectual disabilities contingent upon self-injurious behaviour – physical punishment
  o Skin tearing, banging head, scratching/biting own bodies
• 7 ppts. – mist reduced amount of damage inflicted upon themselves
• 2nd experiment: combined spray with the word no – would the word ‘no’ become conditioned reinforcer?
  o See whether the word ‘no’ would pick up aversive functions of spray – different context in study: associated with just using the word ‘no’, not the spray
• Been previously paired with spray (mor acceptable form of social punishment)
• Ethical dilemma: Cost of intervention for the dignity of the people involved… (1980)
  o BUT if another intervention was introduced that did not work - huge risk – individuals may cause increased self-injurious damage