Lecture 3: Social relations

Question 1

socialization=

Answer 1

• Develop social and emotional skills across the lifespan
• Beliefs, behaviors, values/norms important and appropriate in society
• Healthy social development: forming positive relationships (family, friends, teachers)
• Regulates behavior (e.g., morality, right and wrong)
• Promote personal growth (e.g., motivation to achieve and work hard to accomplish)
• Social order (e.g., socialization process through generations; socialized adults communicate what they have learned to their own children)

Question 2

vygotsky

Answer 2

• Sociocultural context influences development
• The importance of social interaction
• Elementary mental functions (memory, sensation etc) -> higher mental functions (sophisticated strategies, cognitive change)
• Socially transmitted strategies
• All cognitive skills have social origin
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• Role of Joint Involvement Episodes: Parents use „scaffolding“ techniques

Question 3

zone of proximal development

Answer 3

represents the space between what a learner is capable of doing unsupported and what the learner cannot do even with support. It is the range where the learner is able to perform, but only with support from a teacher or a peer with more knowledge or expertise. This person is known as the “more knowledgable other.”

Question 4

social learning theory

Answer 4

learning through observation: social models, respectful others

attention -> retention (cognitive organization of observation in memory) -> reproduction (factors influencing the ability to reproduce behaviour) -> motivation (to reproduce behaviour)

(Bandura)

Question 5

social information processing theory

Answer 5

1. encoding cues
2. interpreting cues
3. clarifying goals
4. accessing or constructing possible responses
5. deciding on a response
6. acting on the chosen response
   peer evaluation and response

DATABASE
- memory store
- acquired rules
- social schemas
- social knowledge

(all phases are influenced by mental states)

zie schrift

Question 6

empathy

Answer 6

• Understand other’s feelings, own feeling in the same situation (affective contributor to altruism)
• Reacting to other’s distress
• Studies provide evidence that children in a very young age display empathic behavior
• Age-related
• Innate attribute and a learned skill (modeling, affectively oriented discipline, sensitive parenting)

Question 7

empathy definitions differ in reference to…

Answer 7

• The sharing of another’s emotional state
• The explicit understanding of another’s emotional state
• The prosocial behavior that follows

Question 8

2 types of empathy (+ 3e bonus)

Answer 8

• affective/behavioural empathy: an affective response more appropriate to someone elses situation than to ones own situation
• cognitive empathy: intellectually take the role or perspective of another person, decode and label emotions
• compassionate empathy: action empathy, goes beyong understanding/feeling, motivates us to help others. we understand, feel, and then take action.

Question 9

stages of empathy development

Answer 9

1) global empathy (first year): others are not yet perceived as distinct, anothers distress is confounded with own feelings
2) egocentric empathy (second year): child becomes aware of others distress, but the others internal states are still assumed to be the same as the childs
3) empathy for anothers feelings (2-3 years): child becomes aware that others have distinct feelings and responds to these in non-egocentric ways
4) empathy for anothers life condition (late childhood): others feelings are perceived as expression of their life experience. empathic affect combind with mental representation of others condition.

Question 10

predictors of prosocial behaviour

Answer 10

• altruisim, empathy, moral development
• genetic factors
• social factors (e.g. parenting behaviour: provision of clear rules and principles, empathic caregiving to the child, attributing prosocial qualities to the child, modeling by parent (social learning theory))
• cultural context (e.g. focus on mutual interdependence)

Question 11

levels of peer affiliation

Answer 11

• Interactions: prosocial, antisocial, withdrawn
• Relationships: development of interactions over time
• Groups: arise from sets of relationships

Question 12

two types of (peer) relationships

Answer 12

• vertical: hierarchical, asymmetric (teacher/student), main function is security, protection, guidance
• horizontal: same power level, symettrical, main function is cognitive, emotional and social skill learning among equals

Question 13

grafiek child and adult companions

Answer 13

vanaf 2.5 jaar meer child companions compared to other companions

Question 14

what skills are needed for social interactions

Answer 14

• Joint attention
• Emotional regulation
• Inhibitory control
• Modeling
• Causal understanding
• Language

Question 15

hoe ontwikkelen deze vaardigheden zich later

Answer 15

• Consolidation of social skills
• Context: groups
• Capacity for prosocial behavior increases in childhood

Question 16

developmental trends in peer interactions

Answer 16

Infancy:
* At 3 months: interest in other babies
* But interactive behavior not until 1.5 years
* Many unreciprocated approaches

Toddler period:
* More frequent and complex interactions
* Start of reciprocal play, turn-taking

Preschool years:
* Symbolic play and verbal skills for communication
* Increasing capacity for group play

Childhood:
* Substantial increase in capacity to „read“ others‘ minds
* Choosy in partners (seeking out same-minded, predominantly same-sex friends)
* Peer-group forms important part in live

Adolescence
* Increasing interest in other-sex relationships
* Peer group as reference group (sense of identity)
* Definition of ‘peers’ changes from shared outside activities to shared”mindsets and attitudes

Question 17

4 types of play

Answer 17

1. nonsocial play: a child is in a room full of other children, but they are playing alone and not paying attention to anyone.
2. parallel play: children are playing next to each other, but they are not talking and do not play together
3. associative play: children are playing the same game. they are interested in each others toys, but they are not working together, not coordinating.
4. cooperative play: children are working together to play a game, sharing with one another, following rules and guidelines

Question 18

pretend play/dramatic play/symbolic play

Answer 18

• Imaginative pretense, actively experimenting social roles
• Share responsibility, solve problems
• Increases with level of language
• Extremely important for social development, fosters friendships

Question 19

type of relationships

Answer 19

• Friendships
• Peer groups: sense of membership, formulate norms
• Clique: a small group of friends, sense of belonging
• Crowds: larger, reputationally based peer group. Cliques that share similar norms, interests and values

Question 20

difference between friendships and peer popularity

Answer 20

• Not all popular children have good friends
• Not all low-accepted children are without (at least one) best friend

Question 21

functions of friendships

Answer 21

• Source of companionship and fun
• Contexts for skill acquisition
• Source of self-knowledge and knowledge about others
• Emotional support in face of stress
• Forerunners of subsequent (romantic, marital, parental) relationships

Question 22

peer acceptance/peer nomination levels

Answer 22

• popular
• unpopular:
  1. neglected,
  2. rejected: aggressive vs. unagressive

hier even diagram van maken

Question 23

popular children

Answer 23

• Positive, happy dispositions
• Physically attractive
• High levels of cooperation
• Willing to share
• Good leadership qualities
• Little aggression

Question 24

rejected children

Answer 24

• Much disruptive and inappropriate behavior
• Often antisocial
• Extremely active
• Frequent attempts at social approaches
• Much solitary activity
• Little cooperative play, unwilling to share

Question 25

neglected children

Answer 25

* Shy, unassertive * Little antisocial behavior * Rarely aggressive, withdraw in face of others‘ aggression * Lot of solitary activity * Avoid dyadic interaction, more time with larger groups

Question 26

aggressive rejected children

Answer 26

Externalizing behavior - hostility - lack of control - distractability

Question 27

unagressive rejected children

Answer 27

Internalizing behavior - fearfulness - anxiety - withdrawal (kan later naar aggressive gaan)

Question 28

wat is lastig aan die sociometric status

Answer 28

Issue of causality: often cross-sectional data, therefore unclear whether: * children with more social characteristics become more popular or * children who are (for some reasons) excluded develop less social competence

Question 29

loneliness

Answer 29

Developmental changes: * From playmates to self-disclosing soul-mates * Friendships become more stable with age Lonely children: * Have more emotional problems * Lack of perspective taking skills * Are less altruistic * Less sociable * Make fewer educational gains

Question 30

5 trajectories of loneliness in children

Answer 30

* Stable and low levels of loneliness (most children) * Moderate increasing loneliness * High increasing loneliness * Decreasing loneliness * Chronic loneliness

Question 31

chronic loneliness predicts:

Answer 31

low social skills, depression, aggression and suicidal ideation at age 15

Question 32

loneliness predictors

Answer 32

* Susceptibility to feeling lonely * Seek social connection -> sense of safety (evolutionary models) * Adverse peer experiences earlier in life (e.g. victimization) * ....but also genetics (especially stability in loneliness)

Question 33

loneliness and bullying association

Answer 33

- dose response relationship (meer bullying is meer loneliness) - bullying victimization is directly linked to loneliness, even when other factors are considered. In other words, the impact of bullying on loneliness remains significant, even after accounting for things like psychopathology, social isolation, genetic risk - the effects of bullying in childhood last into young adulthood. Even if the person is not being bullied anymore, the experience of being bullied during childhood can still affect how lonely they feel later in life

Question 34

Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory

Answer 34

-> how the environment impacts human development human development is influenced by various levels of environmental systems, ranging from immediate settings like family to broader societal factors. He emphasized that development is not just shaped by the individual but by their interactions with the various layers of their environment. 1. microsystem (family, schools, peers, workplace, neighborhood) 2. mesosystem (interplay/connections between the microsystems: bv. family-school) 3. exosystem (settings that the individual doesn’t directly interact with but that still have an influence on their development -> government policies, neighbourhood safety, media, parents work) 4. macrosystem: larger cultural and societal context (economy, politics, cultural values and beliefs) 5. chronosystem changes and transitions over time that affect a persons development (aging, changing attitudes, or historical events)