Lecture 4 - Motivations and Goals Flashcards
1
Q
How are the questions in the origins of motivations addressed many areas psychology
A
Biology - neural mechanism different associations and readiness activated
Personality - how people differ inherent levels motivation and propensity act
Social - how others and context influence motivation
2
Q
What does Geen 1995 argue the driving force between volitional behaviour determine
A
Strength
Direction
Persistence behaviour
3
Q
Outline Biological Needs
A
Serve evolutionary purpose survival and powerful influence on motivation
Food, warmth, sec
4
Q
Outline psychological needs
A
Self actualisation - achieving full psychological potential
Self fulfilment - differ person to person
Autonomy - independence, freedom external control
5
Q
How does Rogers 1960 explain motivated behaviour
A
Exploratory behaviour
Seeking tasks
6
Q
What are Maslows 1954 Hierarchy of Needs
A
Self Actualisation Esteem Needs Belongingness and Love needs Safety needs Physiological needs
7
Q
Define self actualisation
A
Achieving ones full potential including creative activities
Being needs
8
Q
Outline Esteem needs
A
Deficiency need
Prestige and feeling accomplishment
9
Q
Outline Belongingness and Love needs
A
Deficiency needs
Intimate relationships and friends
10
Q
Outline Safety Needs
A
Deficiency needs
Security
Safety
11
Q
Outline Physiology Needs
A
Deficiency needs
Food, water, warmth, rest
12
Q
Outline Deficiency needs
A
Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem
Can’t progress up hierarchy unless deficient needs met
Deficient cognitive (learning and knowledge) and aesthetic needs (beauty) inserted after esteem needs
13
Q
Outline link between Transcendence and Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
A
Transcendent needs put after self actualisation - support others to become self actualised
14
Q
Outline Maslows hierarchy of needs and motivations
A
Maslow - 2% make it to top
Motivations - pluralistic behaviour. May pursue needs several different levels same time. E.g. eat same time socialising
Evidence mixed
Outcome oriented
15
Q
What were Dunning 2001 motives for Social Judgement
A
Desire coherence
Affirmation of competence
Desire for knowledge
16
Q
How is curiosity and knowledge linked
A
Power curiosity = important social judgement and decision making
17
Q
Outline Loewenstein et al 1992 study on Curiosity and Knowledge
A
Ppts shown photographs of individuals body parts
Choice $.5 payment or seeing whole photograph body
Curiosity increased number body parts viewed
More likely want see body parts
Positive relationship between feelings knowing and curiosity
18
Q
What enhances curiosity?
A
Issues familiar, have some expertise
New info violates expectations
Consequences for themselves - accountable for behaviour
19
Q
What happens to curiosity when you are accountable
A
Consider more alternatives More effort integrating factors Less likely succumb biases Better quality judgements Too much weight irrelevant info Bias beliefs towards those accountable to
20
Q
Outline the relationship between curiosity and knowledge with the need for control
A
Knowledge enables prediction and control
Questioning people’s control subsequently makes them more competent in social cognitive tasks
21
Q
Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge
A
High, low or no helplessness training to identify concepts on cards
22
Q
Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge results for low helplessness condition
A
Low helplessness more accurate attributions about essay writing causes. Better able weigh up social judgements
Inferred weaker attitudes people wrote essays for pay. More hostile and anxious
23
Q
Outline Pittman and Pittman 1980 study on the desire for knowledge results for high helplessness condition
A
Performance declined in high helplessness group. More depressed and anxious
Make people work harder and increase efforts gain control
24
Q
Outline affirmation of competence and positive self esteem
A
Self serving attribution bias, optimistic bias, all think we are above average
Hard demonstrate biases printed just by self esteem motivates (cognitive processes)
25
Outline affirmation of competence, positive self esteem and self serving attribution bias
Due insight personal efforts and capabilities rather than just self esteem
Self affirmation fails show certain contexts you might think it would
26
Outline Freedman and Sears 1965 link with affirmation of competence
When given chance examine info that was to affirm or not affirm a decision e.g. car purchase
Most looked threatening info going against belief we like affirm
27
Outline the Desire for coherence
Motivated reduced contradictions
| Cognitive dissonance Festinger 1957
28
Outline the Desire for Coherence and Cognitive Dissonance Festinger 1957
Forced compliance. Perform action goes against beliefs and no external justification end up changing beliefs
Effort justification: ppts value things work hard for
Free choice: after choosing one thing people tend denigrate the other
29
Does cognitive dissonance really exist?
May be dispassionate cognitive process - Bem 1972
Though negative affect reported
Only important inconsistencies cause dissonance
30
Outline Deci 1971 study
Paid student solve puzzles. When reward removes spent less time
When originally paid then told no money. Those who were originally unpaid continued to work.
Reward people -> attribute behaviour to extrinsic reward -> undermining effect
Intrinsic motivation be undermined if induced to engage with extrinsic goal
31
Who created the Self Determination Theory
Deci and Ryan 1985
32
Outline the 3 basic needs of the Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985
3 basic needs => essential psychological growth, well being
Autonomy - self determination, goals decided by you
Competence - successful attainment goals
Relatedness - development and maintenance close personal relationships
33
What is the difference between the Self Determination Theory and Maslow and Dunnings
Maslow and Dunning = actively striving
Self Determination = not actively striving but when actions have these features creates better learning, performance, well being, psychological growth
34
Outline the Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985
Continuum perceived locus regulation
Intrinsic motivation - enjoyment, satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation - external pressure, demands, rewards
Needs interact with social context
35
Outline the facilitation of natural growth processes in Self Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan 1985
Intrinsic motivation behaviour, integration of extrinsic motivations
OR
Reduced motivation, performance, well being able
More intrinsic more likely persist and maintain behaviour
36
Outline A-Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum
Non-regulation
Impersonal
Non intentional, non valuing, incompetence, lack control, forced do something don’t want to do
37
Outline External Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum
Extrinsic Motivation
External regulation and motivation
Compliance, external rewards and punishments
Based rewards
38
Outline Introjected Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum
Extrinsic motivation
Somewhat External
Self control, ego involvement. Internal rewards and punishment
Conflict ought and want to do
39
Outline Identified Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum
Extrinsic
Somewhat external
Personal importance, conscious valuing
Rules understood and valued
40
Outline Integrated Regulation in the Self Determination Continuum
Extrinsic
Internal motivation
Congruence, awareness, synthesis with self
41
Outline Intrinsic Motivation in the Self Determination Continuum
Intrinsic regulation
Internal
Interest, employment. Inherent satisfaction
42
What were the Extrinsic Motivations of the Self Determination Continuum
External Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Identified Regulation
Integrated Regulation
43
Outline the cognitive evaluation theory sub theory of self determination theory
Examines effects rewards feedback and other external events on intrinsic motivation
How interacts and be increased/decreased
44
Outline the cognitive evaluation theory sub theory of self determination theory on intrinsic motivation
Primarily innate psychological needs - competence and autonomy
Effects external events depend functional significance perceived autonomy and perceived competence
Rewards sole driver behaviour or indicators competence
Relatedness features in interpersonal context
Extent which context controlling or not
45
Outline Cue Value
Makes competence info salient
E.g. got that prize because you’re so good at that
Most people don’t manage that!
46
Outline Verbal Rewards
Informational aspect salient thus increases intrinsic motivation
Perceived as controlling - leads undermining intrinsic motivation
Importance interpersonal context. Depending on person depends if these interpreted positively or negatively. Can undermine autonomy doing task because they wanted to do it
47
Outline Lepper, Greene and Nisbett 1973 field study on 50 3-5year old nursery children
Showed intrinsic interest target activities of drawing
Expected reward: asked draw pictures and promised reward best drawing
Non-rewarded: drew without promise reward
Unexpected reward: drew and given surprise reward
48
Outline Lepper, Greene and Nisbett 1973 field study on 50 3-5year old nursery children RESULTS
Those who expected reward spent significantly less time drawing
Over justification effect = reward indication cause behaviour external.
Salient rewards undermine intrinsic motivation
49
Outline similarities between Over Justification Effect and Undermining Effect
Salient rewards undermine intrinsic motivation
| Positive competence provided less likely undermine intrinsic motivation
50
Outline differences between Over Justification Effect and Undermining Effect
Undermining = focus perception being controlled (diminished autonomy)
Over justification effect = rewards considered in advance - activity undertaken obtain goal
51
What are the effects of a not expected reward on intrinsic motivations
Predicted to be NO effect
52
Outline expected rewards Ryan et al 1983 typology of reward contingencies
Non contingent rewards
Engagement contingent rewards
1. Non contingent rewards (not related performance tasks): IM not affected
2. Engagement contingent rewards (pay attention get reward) rewards controlling. Little/no competence affirmation -> undermine IM
53
Outline expected rewards Ryan et al 1983 typology of reward contingencies
Completion contingent rewards
Performance contingent rewards
3. Completion contingent rewards: reward = competence but not strong relative to control -> undermine IM
4. Performance contingent rewards: controlling -> strong undermining IM. Can convey competence info -> IM effects mixed. Context can influence
54
What are the 4 typologies of reward contingencies identified by Ryan et al 1983
Non contingent rewards
Engagement contingent rewards
Completion contingent rewards
Performance contingent rewards
55
Outline Deci et al 1999 meta analysis for undermining effects of rewards
Rewards significantly undermined IM for subsequent free choice behaviour
Unexpected rewards did not affect IM
Salient rewards result stronger undermining effect
Undermining not occur for boring tasks. Intrinsic motivation has to exist
56
Outline effect sizes identified in Deci et al 1999 stud of Expected Rewards
Non contingent - no effect
Engagement contingent - undermine IM and self interest -0.4
Completion contingent - undermine IM and self interest - 0.36
Performance contingent - undermine IM but not reported self interest -0.28
57
Outline the effects of expected rewards on age in Deci et al 1999 meta analysis
Verbal rewards enhance IM for college student but not children (no undermining in either group)
Tangible rewards more detrimental (greater undermining) for children
Positive verbal feedback enhances IM (not children). Controlling verbal rewards undermined IM
58
Outline alternative explanations of Deci et al 1999 meta analysis
Behaviours rewarded culturally valued. Performing without reward basis approval
Rewarded people attribute performance less to themselves
59
Outline alternative explanation of rewards being unrelated to performance by Deci et al 1999 meta analysis
Rewards unrelated to performance feel helpless misinterpreted as reductions in intrinsic motivations.
Rewards depending actions rewards facilitate learned industriousness
60
Outline alternative explanation of rewards being internal or external by Deci et al 1999 meta analysis
Interpret private events using cultural descriptions including approval.
External events do not make private descriptions but follow instructions
61
Who investigates values
Schwartz 1992
62
Outline trans-situational goals by Schwartz 1992
Serve guiding principles in life person or group
63
Outline the overall concept of values by Schwartz 1992
10 basic values relevant all societies
Organised structure some complement others inhibit
Develops from social and psych conflict and congruity between values people experience everyday
Continuum values presented in discrete categories
64
Outline how Schwartz 1992 came up with his values
Tested universality through self report using cross sectional surveys
Samples drawn 20 countries within every inhabited continent
8 religions and atheists
Teachers and UGs
Analysed using Smallest Space Analysis
Organised motivational similarities and dissimilarities
65
What is Smallest Space Analysis SSA
Represents values as points in space so distances between points reflect empirical relations between importance ratings
66
What are Schwartz 1992 4 higher order values
Openness to change
Self transcendence
Self enhancement
Conservation
67
Outline the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992
Next to each other on paradigm similar and activate each other, further away less relationship and activation
On item salient it will suppress values opposing it
68
Outline conformity in the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992
Conformity - restraint action/impulses likely harm or upset others
Compared to
Tradition = restraining due to respect/commitment to religion/culture
69
Outline Hedonism in the structures and relationships identified by Schwartz Values 1992
Hedonism straddles both openness to change and self enhancement
Similar to enhancement due to the focus on our self but not same competitive motivation
Arousal to motivation to change similar to openness
70
Outline the dynamic relations between values by Schwartz 1992
Actions in pursuit values be compatible or may conflict with pursuit other values
E.g. actions express obedience may conflict actions intended express independence and be compatible with actions promoting social order
Adjacent values assumed most compatible: increasing distances indicates decreasing compatibility and greater conflict
71
Outline the critiques of Schwartz 1992
Values appear in most cultures not all groups in same way - Chinese differed
Trying force universal structure on something that doesn’t have a universal structure
Spirituality unaccounted for only appeared in some cultures
Values expressed differently in actions by different people be argued to be of little consequence on their own
Values expressed may be normatively approved ideals rather personal value priorities
72
Who researched into value clashes
Maio et al 2009
73
What procedure does Maio et al 2009 use
Value self confrontation procedure by Rokeach 1975
74
Outline Maio et al 2009 study
Asked ppts rank 16 values then shown values held other students
Manipulated to be dominated by 1 of the 4 meta theories
Values which were activated showed lower depressed scores of opposite meaning
75
Outline how motivations engage with energy saving behaviour
Cost motivations = self enhancement values
Environmental motivations = self transcendence values
Clash between 2
76
Outline the effects and applied value of engaging people with energy Spence et al 2014
Self enhancement reasons for self transcendence less ineffective
No difference effectiveness energy behaviour
Environmental messages more effective in driving additional environmental behaviours = behavioural spill over
77
Outline difficulties with the effects and applied value of engaging people with energy Spence et al 2014 and spillover
Difficult stop people considering both costs
| Combination messages possible
78
Who investigates self regulation
Carver and Scheier 1981
79
Outline Carver and Scheier 1981 on self regulation
Purposeful, self corrective, adjustments to peruse personal goals
Possible future self goals: unrealised future potential what you might be, direction and purpose
Goals reference values for feedback purposes
80
Who created the Control theory of Self Regulation
Carver and Scheier 1981!
81
Outline the Control theory of self regulation by Carver and Scheier 1981
Cybernetic control system
Reference future self compare Input = current self
Discrepancy put into your behaviour = output
Feed back in to next/future state
Secondary output = comparative feedback might feedback into potential future self if a big discrepancy feedback to lower expectations higher expectations if goal achieved
How change and develop over time
82
Who created the self discrepancy theory
Higgins 1987
83
Outline the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987
Compare actual self to ideal and ought
84
Outline the ideal self as identified in the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987
Personal desires for self.
Promotion focused.
Resulting sadness or happiness
85
Outline the ought self as identified in the self discrepancy theory by Higgins 1987
Defined duty, responsibility to others.
Avoid punishment, prevention focused, avoid negative judgement.
Result in anxiety, guilt or relief
86
Outline incentives
Higher order desired outcome
Subsiding lower order goals
E.g. gain money
87
Outline how incentives are shaped by needs
Personal forces narrow down classes incentives
E.g. need for social power
88
Outline Goals and name the 2 types of goals
Lower order aims serve incentives
E.g. get a part-time job
Assigned goals
Self-set goals
89
Define assigned goals
Transformed into personal goals - intrinsic motivation
Perceived desirable and feasible
Personal and redefined
Integrated other existing goals
90
Define self-set goals
Be desirable and feasible
Choose for ourselves
Achievable whilst demonstrating competence
91
Who investigates goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory
Oettingen 2000
92
Outline the study by Oettingen 2000 on goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory
140 females study on daydreams
Info attracts student
Imagine met him at a party
Fantasy reality - elaborate 2 positive and 2 negative aspects real situation
Positive fantasy - elaborate 4 positives
Negative - elaborate 4 negatives
Control - arithmetic tasks
93
Outline the study by Oettingen 2000 on goal setting and the fantasy realisation theory RESULTS
Fantasy reality subsequently more eager meet attractive student
Contrast positive and negative
Delayed future ideas to here and now
Negative - no motivation to act
Positive - no necessity that act is experienced
94
Who investigated the Automotive Theory
Bargh 1990
95
Outline Bargh 1990 Automotive Theory
Goals activated without awareness
Strong mental links form between situations and goals often pursued
Over time situations develop activate links without conscience awareness
Requires initial reflective goal repeated over time
96
Who investigated existence of implicit motives
Carver and Scheier 1999
97
Outline Carver and Scheier 1999 and the existence of implicit motives
Natural incentives not require awareness
| Minor require intention to be formed - biological
98
Who investigates how we achieve goals through the model of action phases
Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987
99
Outline how we achieve goals through the model of action phases by Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987
Pre decisional: deliberating goals and choosing between them
Pre actional: planning goal directed actions and getting started
Actional: successfully achieving goal
Postactional: evaluating outcome
100
Outline how Heckhausen and Golleitzer 1987 argue that by breaking down components we get into the mindset for each step and more likely to achieve
Implement mindset
Focus relevant info - less distracted
Process desirability info in biased banner - less doubts
Process feasibility info in Biased manner - more optimistic
101
How do we plan for goal achievement according to Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987
If encounter situation X
| Then I will perform goal directed behaviour Y
102
Outline the implementation of intentions according to Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987
Delegate control behaviour to environment
Action representation activated by cues - automate behaviour
103
What do the implementations of the intentions outlined by Heckhausen and Gollwitzer 1987 reduce the problems of
Initiating goal directed behaviour
Stabilising goal striving - resisting distractions
Shielding goal striving from obstacles
104
Outline the effect size by the meta analysis conducted by Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006
Medium to large effect size
0.65
105
What does the effect size by the meta analysis conducted by Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006 specify
Specified external cue and desired behaviour
But can target different self regulatory problems: focus stabilising goal striving, focus on shielding physical activity goals
106
Outline Brandstatter et al 2001 study on 40 heroin addicts at a German hospital
20 experiencing withdrawal, 21 no longer in withdrawal
Unemployed and to compose a CV
Half assigned make irrelevant imp (plan) half assigned make relevant imp
107
Outline Brandstatter et al 2001 study on 40 heroin addicts at a German hospital RESULTS
Relevant imp significantly more likely hand in CV next day
Both those in withdrawal and out of withdrawal
Imp/Plan helpful even under high cognitive load
