Lecture 5: Environmental Stressors

Question 1

Q: What are the different definitions of stress?

Answer 1

A: Stress has multiple definitions.

• The situation-based approach = stress as pressure or tension exerted on a material, object, or person.
• The response-based approach defines stress as a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or demanding circumstances.
• The transaction-based approach defines stress as an imbalance between demands and human response capabilities.

Question 2

Q: What are environmental stressors?

Answer 2

A: Environmental stressors are environmental conditions that put pressure or strain on human response capabilities. They can be categorized into physical environmental conditions such as noise, air pollution, and radiation, as well as social environmental conditions like crowding, deprivation, and lack of social status.

Question 3

What are appraisal factors in noise annoyance?

Answer 3

Perceived as hazardous, unpreventable, unnecessary
Associated with fear or danger
Personal factors in noise annoyance (noise sensitivity)

Question 4

Q: What did Walter Cannon propose about stress in 1914?

Answer 4

A: Walter Cannon proposed the concept of “Fight or Flight” in 1914. According to this theory, short-term exposure to stress triggers the release of catecholamines, specifically noradrenaline and adrenaline, leading to physiological arousal in response to a perceived threat or demanding situation.

Question 5

Q: What did Hans Selye propose about stress in 1956?

Answer 5

A: Hans Selye proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) in 1956
This theory describes the body’s response to long-term exposure to stressors. GAS consists of three stages: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion
During long-term stress, the body releases glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, which impact the immune system and the body’s ability to cope with stress

Question 6

Q: What is the Cognitive Appraisal Model of stress?

Answer 6

A: The Cognitive Appraisal Model of stress, proposed by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984, emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in the stress response. It suggests that stress is influenced by how individuals perceive and interpret environmental demands. The model includes primary appraisal (evaluating the significance of a potential stressor) and secondary appraisal (evaluating one’s resources to cope with the stressor). Coping, which involves efforts to attenuate or minimize the negative effects of environmental demands, is also an important aspect of this model.

Question 7

What are sound factors in annoyance?

Answer 7

Constant unbroken sound is generally not annoying but periodic bursts are
As well unpredictable noise is more annoyance

Question 8

What is noise?

Answer 8

Unpleasant, aversive, & unwanted sound
Physical component: perceived by the ear & higher brain
Psychological component: Unwanted or unpleasant

Question 9

What is the Schultz Curve & LDEN?

Answer 9

Schultz curve: A graphical representation of the relationship between exposure and impact
LDEN: Log of day/night exposure to noise - calculates average exposure

Question 10

Q: What is noise annoyance in the context of stress?

Answer 10

A:
It is a construct reflecting an unpleasant mental state characterized by irritation and distraction from activities and conscious thinking
Noise annoyance is considered one of the adverse psychological effects of noise exposure and is often studied in relation to other environmental stressors such as odors, light, touch, and crowding

Noise can have stressful effects such as physiological effects, sleep disturbance, cognitive effects

Question 11

Q: How does noise annoyance contribute to the stress response?

Answer 11

A: There are two theoretical perspectives on the relationship between noise exposure, annoyance, and the stress response

According to the Cognitive Appraisal Model, noise exposure leads to appraisal (annoyance), which then triggers the stress response (arousal)

The Arousal Theory suggests that noise exposure directly leads to arousal, which is then interpreted as annoyance. Thus, annoyance acts as an interpretation of arousal in the context of noise exposure.

Question 12

What did Weinstein (1978) find about noise sensitivity in Uni dorms?

Answer 12

Developed Noise Sensitivity Scale - designed to measure individual sensitivity to perceived noise
Looked at individual differences in perceived noise
Completed SR measures of noise sensitivity
Ppts who were more bothered by noise became increasingly disturbed by the noise whereas noise unsensitive ppts remained the same

Question 13

What are the effects of noise? ABCs

Answer 13

Affect: Mental Health, mood
Behaviour: Social behaviour
Cognitive: Cognition, task performance

Question 14

What is the relationship between noise and habituation?

Answer 14

Ppl habituate to low intensity & non-threatening sound s
But do not habituate to high intensity and unpredictable sounds such as aircraft noise
W/ high intensity sounds, blood vessels keep constricting even if you’ve adapted to the noise

Question 15

What effects does noise have on stress? (Primary effects)

Answer 15

Loud & infrequent noise such as aircraft noise results in increase of stress hormones, constriction of blood vessels
Children in schools near aircraft noise have higher blood pressure & cortisol levels

Question 16

What effects does noise have on sleep disturbance? (Secondary effects)

Answer 16

Conscious sleep disturbance
Unconscious sleep disturbance
Direct & Indirect

Question 17

What effects does noise have on cardiovascular disease (CVD)?

Answer 17

Less clear evidence that noise is associated with disease but it may exacerbate an individual who already has CVD

Question 18

What did Hertier find regarding CVD and aircraft/ railway noise?

Answer 18

Association between CVD and railway/aircraft traffic noise
Only a small part of the population was affected
Controlled for socioeconomic status & gender which demonstrates robust effects

Question 19

Q: What factors contribute to the perception of noise as annoying?

Answer 19

: Several factors contribute to the perception of noise as annoying. In terms of sound factors, constant unbroken sounds are generally less annoying than periodic bursts or unpredictable aperiodic bursts. The effects are stronger for loud and uncontrollable noises. Appraisal factors, such as perceiving noise as unnecessary or preventable, associating it with fear or danger, and being dissatisfied with the environment or noise source, can also contribute to annoyance. Additionally, individual factors like noise sensitivity, which refers to how easily one is annoyed by sounds, play a role in determining the level of annoyance experienced.

Question 20

Q: What is the association between noise exposure and blood pressure and ischaemic heart disease according to Van Kempen et al (2002)?

Answer 20

A: Van Kempen et al (2002) found an association between noise exposure and blood pressure and ischaemic heart disease. They conducted ecological studies that examined the prevalence of heart disease and exposure to noise in specific areas. However, it should be noted that this association does not apply at the individual level.

Question 21

Q: How does road traffic noise compare to air traffic noise in terms of prevalence and incidents of ischemic heart disease?

Answer 21

A: Road traffic noise has a higher prevalence and more incidents of ischemic heart disease compared to air traffic noise
The quality of evidence supporting the association between road traffic noise and heart disease is better quality

Question 22

What did Hegewald et al., (2020) find about traffic noise & mental health?

Answer 22

Conducted a meta-analysis of transportation noise & MH
Aircraft noise resulted in 12% increased risk of developing depression

Question 23

Q: What evidence is provided by Sørensen et al (2012) and Tétreault et al (2013) regarding the association between noise and cardiovascular disease?

Answer 23

A: Sørensen et al (2012) conducted a cohort study with 50,614 participants and found a correlation between noise and air pollution (Lden/NOx)
-exposure to road traffic noise (L(den)) was significantly associated with myocardial infarction

Tétreault et al (2013) reviewed five studies and assessed the effect of air pollution on the association between noise and cardiovascular disease
adjustments made in the studies had minimal impact on the results, suggesting that noise had an independent association with cardiovascular disease

Question 24

Q: Is there a theoretical link between noise exposure and infectious diseases?

Answer 24

Stress —> Immuno-suppressant —> Infectious disease
A: There is a theoretical link between noise exposure and infectious diseases. Psychological stress caused by noise exposure can have an immunosuppressant effect, which may make individuals more susceptible to infectious diseases
Some research studies have shown a correlation between the degree of psychological stress caused by noise and the occurrence of upper respiratory tract infections
Research evidence in this area is very limited

Question 25

What did Newmann et al., (2006) find about noise & infectious disease?

Answer 25

Found an association between noise annoyance and respiratory disease

Question 26

What did Cohen et al., (1991) find about infectious disease and noise?

Answer 26

Very clear association between stress and ppts infectious disease which shows there is SOME evidence to suggest a link between noise and infectious disease but it’s WEAK

Question 27

Q: Does exposure to road traffic noise pose a bigger problem compared to other sources of noise?

Answer 27

A: Yes, exposure to road traffic noise is considered a much bigger problem compared to other sources of noise
Linked to myocardial infarction and is more widespread in terms of the number of people exposed
When studying the association between noise and health outcomes, MUST adjust for socioeconomic status, gender, and deprivation to account for potential confounding factors

Question 28

Q: What is the impact of transportation noise on mental health?

Answer 28

A: The impact of transportation noise on mental health is mixed and inconclusive
Some studies have associated noise exposure with psychosomatic complaints such as headaches, nausea, irritability, anxiety, and poor mood
Evidence of a positive association between aircraft noise and psychiatric admissions (Kryler, 1990)
However, other studies have yielded inconclusive results due to the lack of accurate noise measurements and controls for confounding factors such as socioeconomic status
More research, including meta-analyses, is needed to further investigate the relationship between transportation noise and mental health.

Question 29

What did Clark et al., (2019) find about noise and mental health?

Answer 29

Systematic review of research research
Evidence suggests that aircraft noise associated with depression as well as road traffic noise
BUT the evidence is low quality and it must be noted that various factors are involved with mental illness

Question 30

What did Eze et al., (2018) find about transportation noise & respiratory health?

Answer 30

Swiss Cohort Study: investigated independent associations of transportation noise exposure and noise annoyance with prevalent respiratory symptoms and incident asthma in adults
Transportation noise level and annoyance contributed to symptom exacerbation in adult asthma (ppts who already had it)
BUT when SES was adjusted for, effect disappeared

Question 31

Q: Can exposure to noise be minimized, and how can it be achieved?

Answer 31

A: insulating buildings to reduce the entry of noise, using soundproof windows, and implementing regulations to limit noise levels.
Minimizing noise exposure is particularly important for preventing sleep disturbances, as the quality of sleep can be greatly affected by noise.
Opening windows or using other means to ventilate the space while minimizing noise intrusion can also be considered

Question 32

Q: What is the impact of noise exposure on children’s cognitive performance?

Answer 32

A:
Short term effects: noise can affect performance at school by causing cognitive, motivational, and behavioral disruptions
Long term effects: noise can interfere with learning and development, specifically impacting problem-solving abilities, reading comprehension, and memory
Most research in this area has focused on the effects of aircraft noise, which is considered an intensive and uncontrollable stressor for children
The interference with learning can occur both directly, by impeding concentration and attention, and indirectly, through the stress and annoyance caused by the noise
Long-term exposure to noise does not lead to habituation, meaning the negative effects persist over time.

Question 33

Q: What were the findings of Sheldon Cohen et al. (1980) regarding the impact of noise on children’s performance?

Answer 33

A: Children in noisy schools (74-95dB) had higher blood pressures, were more likely to make errors on cognitive tasks, were more easily distracted, and lost interest in insoluble puzzles, indicating lower motivation.

Question 34

Q: What did Evans and colleagues (1995) discover about the effects of noise exposure on children living in noisy neighborhoods?

Answer 34

A: Children in noisy neighborhoods (68dB) had higher levels of noradrenaline, poorer reading ability and memory, were more likely to give up on insoluble puzzles, experienced more annoyance, and had poorer psychological quality of life compared to children in quiet neighborhoods (59dB)

Question 35

Q: What were the main findings of the RANCH study conducted by Stansfeld et al. (2005)?

Answer 35

A: The study found that aircraft noise, but not traffic noise, was associated with reading comprehension and word recognition difficulties in children. The effects of aircraft noise were relatively small compared to socio-economic status (SES) but still significant.

Question 36

Q: What did a narrative literature review by Clark and Stansfeld (2007) reveal about the impact of noise on children’s cognitive performance?

Answer 36

A: The review provided strong evidence that aircraft noise negatively affects children’s cognitive performance, specifically reading comprehension and memory skills. However, the evidence for noise-induced sleep disturbance in children was weak, and there was no association between noise exposure and severe psychological illness in both children and adults.

Question 37

Q: What were the findings of the meta-analysis conducted by Clark et al. (2021)?

Answer 37

A: The meta-analysis combined data from multiple studies and showed that a 1dB increase in noise was associated with a decrease in reading comprehension and an increased odds ratio of obtaining below-average scores. There were no significant impacts on emotional/conduct problems, but there was a slight increase in hyperactivity. The impact of noise on psychological health remained uncertain.

Question 38

What did Hertier find regarding CVD and aircraft/ railway noise?

Answer 38

Association between CVD and railway/aircraft traffic noise
Only a small part of the population was affected
Controlled for socioeconomic status & gender which demonstrates robust effects