Lecture 3: Environmental Risk Perception

Question 1

What is the timeline of environmental risk perception?

Answer 1

1982: Beginning of risk perception studies
Early 2000s: study on risk perception found 5 risk cases - climate change, mobile phones, radioactive waste, GM food, genetic testing
2000s to present: Climate change risk begins to become prominent
2011 study: argues the need to consider risk perception of climate change

Question 2

What is the definition of a hazard?

Answer 2

Anything that could lead to harm

Question 3

What is the definition of a risk?

Answer 3

Probability X Severity
Probability of it happening
Severity of the event
High probability + High Severity = High Risk

Question 4

What is risk assessment?

Answer 4

a systematic process of evaluating the potential risks that may be involved in a projected activity or undertaking
-more numerical/objective
-expert assessment (formalised)
-used in risk management

Question 5

What is risk perception?

Answer 5

the subjective judgement that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk
-subjective
-more qualitative
-‘ordinary’ people but also experts
-understanding risk relevant behaviour and shaping communication

Question 6

What did Slovic (2000) find about experts vs non-experts on terms of risk assessment?

Answer 6

Looked at range of 30 risk issues, asked both experts & non-experts in risk assessment to rank them
University students put nuclear power at the top of their list but experts but this low down
Experts: Gage risk more correctly

Question 7

Why are we interested in risk perception?

Answer 7

To improve communication and directing educational efforts if the focus is on lay publics bias’s and misperceptions
Informing risk management strategies - if focus on validity of lay public, as well as expert, perspectives
Predict & understand public responses e.g., GM food, vaccines, climate change

Question 8

Tversky & Kahneman (1974) cognitive psychology perspective

Answer 8

Argue that humans are not rational decision makers
There are systematic biases which influence our processing 7 judgement

Question 9

What is a representativeness heuristic?

Answer 9

occurs when we estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known situation
In other words, we compare it to a situation, prototype, or stereotype we already have experience

Question 10

What is an availability heurstic?

Answer 10

Estimate frequency or probability based on how easy it is to think of something (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974)
How our thinking or judgements are made based on how salient the info is to us

Question 11

What did Demski et al., 2016 find?

Answer 11

Looked at how important it is that the info is available to us
Surveyed ppl directly affected by flooding (damage to property)
Also surveyed from national sample
Wanted to gage ppl’s views of risk of climate change
Ppl who had experienced flooding were more likely to refer spontaneously to climate change as a result
If you been affected you’re more likely to bring that to mind

Question 12

What is a framing effect?

Answer 12

A decision outcome can be influenced by
- The background context of the choice
-The way in which the question is worded/framed
-Ppl are risk adverse; would rather have a certain outcome

Question 13

The framing effect in terms of climate change (Spence & Pidgeon, 2010)

Answer 13

The same climate information framed in gain or loss outcomes; distant or near effects
Info can be changed based on gain or loss framing
Gain framing: Course of action = gain something
Loss framing: lose something

Results: people were more concerned about climate change when it was framed as a local issue rather than a global or distant problem b/c it’s more relevant to them

People tend to respond more favorably to messages emphasizing the potential gains rather than losses associated with climate change

Question 14

What did Graham & Abrahamse, 2017 find about how the level of concern about climate impacts of meat consumption

Answer 14

Interested how framing meat consumption impacts peoples views by giving them information about impact
In experimental group, increased ppl’s concerns about emissions as a result of climate change vs. Control

An informational message about the climate impacts of meat consumption was associated with stronger intentions to reduce meat consumption, particularly for people with strong self-transcendence values

Question 15

What is an affect heuristic?

Answer 15

Using underlying feelings to form perceptions of risk & benefit: “If a person’s feelings toward an activity are favorable, they are moved toward judging the risks as low and benefits as high (Slovic et al., 2004)

Question 16

What did the Leiserowtiz, 2006 study find?

Answer 16

Affect predicts global warming risk perception more strongly that other variables
Ppts asked how +ve or -ve they felt towards climate change (-5 to +5): holistic effect
Participants asked for image associations, affect rating of these measured; image affect
Affect was the strongest predictor of risk perceptions

Question 17

What is a psychometric paradigm?

Answer 17

a research methodology derived from the assumption that risk is subjective and that qualitative features of hazards will be linked to perceptions of risk

Question 18

What did Slovic et al., (1980) study about risky hazards?

Answer 18

-90 hazards & 18 characteristics e.g. voluntariness, personal knowledge, control over risk, novelty, severity of consequence, equity)
-Looked at what hazards are the most risky
-Looked at range of characteristics associated with those hazards
-Found across range of characteristics it was reduced into dread or unknown

Question 19

What did the psychometric paradigm lead to?

Answer 19

Lead to research of mapping how people feel about different risks
Mapped people’s perception - Factor 1: Dread Risk
Factor 2: Unknown risk

Question 20

What did Fox-Glassman & Weber (2016) found similar risk space after 40 years in the USA

Answer 20

‘dread’ and ‘unknown’ factors still predict perceived level and acceptability of risk

Question 21

What is the criticisms of psychometric approach?

Answer 21

-Conclusions dependent on hazards studied & questions asked
-A theoretical: what does ‘dread’ & ‘unknown’ always mean?
-Not always a strong predictors: accounts for 20% of variance (Sjoberg, 2000)
-May be more than 2 factors or different types of factors

Question 22

What are some individual differences in risk perception?

Answer 22

Knowledge/expertise - experts tend to rate lower risks
Gender & ethnicity - women perceive higher risks than men , ‘white male effect’
Experience- Contrasting effects: exposure heightens awareness and ‘availability’ but may lead to desensitization

Question 23

What makes society focus more on some risks than others?

Cultural Theory

Answer 23

Cultural theory (Douglas, 1992) offers a method of analyzing public debates as positions taken in a conflict between cultures and groups (rather than individuals)
Roots in anthropological studies
Risk perception is not private - people are already primed with culturally learned assumptions
Cultural & influence in judgements about what is risky & which risks are deemed acceptable

Question 24

What makes society focus on more risks than others?

Answer 24

People form beliefs about risks & social dangers which reflect & reinforce their commitments to their own chosen way of life or social ordering
Individuals are embedded in social structures, it is these that determine their values, attitudes, worldviews

Question 25

What are the two dimensions of cultural theory?

Answer 25

Group: The extent to which people see themselves as part of groups
Grid: The extent to which their interactions rule-bound
Where a person or society is situated on these 2 dimensions influences their perceptions of risk

Question 26

What does cultural theory mean in terms of environmental risk perception?

Answer 26

Depending on where you fall on these dimensions depends on how you see & perceive the world

Question 27

What are individualist views on nature & implications for risk perception

Answer 27

Nature is robust & resilient
People are free to act as they wish with a few restrictions
It implies free-market economic solutions are appropriate for environmental protection
Society comes first

Question 28

What egalitarian views on nature & implication for risk perception

Answer 28

Nature is fragile, intricately connected & delicate equilibrium
Tend to be very concerned about environmental problems & responsible for addressing them
According to cultural theory, egalitarians claim that nature is fragile so “justify equal sharing of what they see as the one finite Earth”

Question 29

What are hiearchist views on nature

Answer 29

Nature is controllable
Nature is a tolerant or robust up to a point but once limits are exceeded
& transgressed the system will collapse (Grendstand & Selle, 2000)
Implies we need oversight and statute regulation

Question 30

What are fatalist views?

Answer 30

Nature is unmanageable and untrustworthy
Nature is out of ppl’s control
May be less likely to engage in proactive measures to prepare for natural risks

Question 31

What did Capstick & Pidgeon., 2014 find about perceptions of climate change?

Answer 31

Tried to operationalise and measure these views - the 4 dimensions for climate change
argue that two main types should be distinguished: epistemic scepticism, relating to doubts about the status of climate change as a scientific and physical phenomenon; and response scepticism, relating to doubts about the efficacy of action taken to address climate change
The way ppts interpreted a cold spell of weather aligned with their views towards climate change

Question 32

How did West et al., 2010 apply cultural theory to renewable energy?

Answer 32

Aim: Develop deeper understanding of how individuals’ worldviews can inform opinions & behaviour
Method: Focus groups, qualitative analysis
Cultural theory perspective helps to explain the varied and contradictory positions taken

Question 33

Examples of cultural theory and renewable energy

Answer 33

Individualist views: Don’t want interference from others - e.g., Gov’t
Egalitarian: Think about people years ago in time & likely to support initiatives that promote community-based renewable energy projects
Hierarchal: Gov’t needs to lead more; prioritize stability and authority
Fatalist: transitioning to renewable energy is ultimately beyond human control or that it won’t effectively address environmental challenges

Question 34

What are limitations of cultural theory?

Answer 34

-The grid-group model is rigid but surely ppl more between positions?
Do the groups vary over time and by context
It’s hard to operationalize and measure
Criticized for weak correlations

Question 35

What is cultural cognition theory?

Answer 35

CC theory integrates cultural theory & psychometric paradigm & attempts to account for individual differences
Risk perceptions are based on our cultural values or morals
Combines cultural theory with psychological theory

Question 36

What is hierarchal-egalitarianism (subscale 1 of cultural cognition)

Answer 36

Combines elements of both hierarchy and egalitarianism, reflecting a belief in social hierarchies and the need for social order, stability, and authority, while also emphasizing principles of equality and fairness
May view risk management as the responsibility of those in positions of authority
Attitudes to authority based stratified social roles with fixed characteristics e.g., “We have gone too far pushing equal rights in this country”

Question 37

What is individualism - communitarianism? (one subscale of cultural cognition)

Answer 37

Value personal autonomy but also social collective action approach to risk
Attitudes to responsibility for wellbeing and to individual freedoms e.g., The gov’t interferes far too much with our lives

Question 38

What is science comprehension thesis? (Kahan et al., 2012)

Answer 38

Kahan compared two alternative explanations for climate change concern
Def: Higher science literacy/ numeracy = higher perceived risk

Question 39

What is cultural cognition thesis?

Answer 39

Cultural position + science literacy/ numeracy = polarization
Egalitarians w/ higher science and numeracy leads to higher levels of perceived risk
Hierarchal individualists with higher science & numeracy have lower perceived risk

Question 40

What did Wong & Yang’s (2000) find?

Answer 40

As new risk emerges, risk perception may change
Looked at how affect influenced risk perception
Affect/emotion, risk perception & compassionate goals influence policy support

Question 41

What did Siegrist et al., 2021 find?

Answer 41

Health risk perception is the strongest predictor of acceptance of measures to control Covid-19

Question 42

What did Joslyn et al., (2021) find

Answer 42

Used messages to overcome biases; examined perceptions & intentions by age, message & ideology