Lecture 8 Flashcards
Define emotions
Emotions: refer to subjective feelings accompanied by physiological changes, cognitive thoughts, and desire to take action. They play a crucial role in human experience, influencing behaviour and interpersonal relationship
Define features that accompany emotions
Features accompanying emotions
Physical changes: such as heart and breathing rates, hormone levels
Cognitions/thoughts: cognitive processes related to the emotion
Desire to take actions: emotions often prompt a desire to approach, fight, flee, or take specific actions
What are different ways that we can quantify emotions?
Quantifying emotions: various methods are used to quantity emotions including:
Facial expression measurement: using systems like Ekman’s facial action coding system (FACS), adapted for infants (Baby FACS). This method relies on facial expressions to assess emotional states
Vocal or behavioural/body movement measures: observing behaviours such as squealing, crying, or specific body movements associated with different emotions
Physiological components: measuring physiological changes like heart rate, which can indicate emotional states
What are each of their limitations and why is it challenging to classify infant emotions?
Limited and challenges:
Subjectivity: interpreting emotional expressions can be subjective
Context dependence: the same facial expression or behaviour may convey different emotions in different contexts
Limited expressive repertoire in infants: infants may have a limited range of facial expressions, making it challenging to classify their emotions accurately
Challenges in classifying infant emotions:
Limited expressive communication: infants may express emotions through limited facial expressions and behaviours
Lack of verbal expression: infants cannot verbally communicate their emotions
Contextual ambiguity: similar behaviours may represent different emotions depending on the context
Which is the most common? (emotion)
Facial expression measurement, such as Baby FACS, is a common method for quantifying infant emotions. However, due to the challenges mentioned, researchers often use a combination of methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the infant emotions
Which kind of emotions can be observed at birth?
Emotions at birth:
At birth, infants can exhibit some basic emotions, including generalized distress. However, the range of emotions expressed is limited compared to later stages of development
What are social smiles and when do they develop
Social smiles:
Social smiles, which are smiles directed towards others, typically emerge around 6 to 10 weeks of age. Unlike reflex smiles that might occur earlier, social smiles are intentional and responsive to social stimuli, such as interactions with caregivers
Which emotions are particularly difficult to distinguish from one another
Emotions difficult to distinguish:
In the early stages, distinguishing between different negative emotions can be challenging. For example, it may be difficult to identify specific expressions for sadness, disgust, fear, or anger in very young infants
Which emotions are experientially connected?
Experientially connected emotions:
Emotions like happiness and surprise or happiness and interest can be experientially connected. For instance, infants around 3 months of age may exhibit mixed emotions, showing happiness along with surprise or interest. The boundaries between certain emotions may not be as clear in early developmental stages
Describing evidence that infants’ respond to others’ emotions, this can be connected to Lecture 7 as well.
Infants responding to other’s emotion:
Infants demonstrate an early ability to respond to others’ emotions, and this is often observed through their capacity for social referencing. Social referencing refers to the ability to seek information from the emotional expressions of others in uncertain or ambiguous situations. Infants may look to their caregivers for cues on how to interpret and respond to novel stimuli
What environmental factors influence how children attend to ambiguous anger?
Environmental factors influencing attention to ambiguous anger
The attention to ambiguous anger in children can be influenced by various environmental factors, including:
Caregiver expressiveness:The way caregivers express emotions can impact how infants attend to ambiguous anger. If caregivers are consistently expressive in their display of anger, infants may become more attuned to this emotion
Cultural norms: Cultural norms regarding the expression of emotions play a role. In some cultures, anger may be expressed more openly, while in others, it might be suppressed. Children growing up in different cultural contexts learn to attend to and interpret emotions based on these norms
Frequency of exposure to anger: The frequency with which a child is exposed to displays of anger in their environment, whether within the family or broader community, can shape their attention to and understanding of ambiguous anger
How can this be adaptive in different environments?
Adaptive nature in different environment:
The ability to attend to ambiguous anger can be adaptive in various environments
High-threat environments:In environments where there is a higher prevalence of threatening situations or potential harm, being attuned to ambiguous anger expressions can serve as a protective mechanism. It allows children to quickly detect potential sources of danger or distress
Cultural adaptation: Adapting to the cultural norms of emotional expression enables children to navigate social interactions more effectively. Understanding and responding to ambiguous anger expressions according to cultural expectations contribute to social cohesion
Caregiver-child bond: Attending caregivers’ emotional cues, including ambiguous anger, strengthens the caregiver-child bond. It facilitates communication and responsiveness, promoting a sense of security for the child
Explain Drummond et al.’s (2017) broken toy paradigm. Were they able to classify distinct guilt and shame responses? Why was this significant in this age group and what is the earliest age we can confidently disassociate these emotions? What evidence do they have from the broken toy paradigm to suggest these profiles represent guilt and shame? How did this relate to instrumental helping, empathic helping, and altruistic helping? Why did it only relate to differences in some of these types of helping?
Experiment design: Drummond and colleagues used a broken toy paradigm to investigate guilt and shame responses in 30-month-old children. The broken toy paradigm involved presenting children with a special toy that, unbeknownst to them, was rigged to fall apart when played with
Classifying guilt and shame responses: The researchers sought to classify distinct guilt and shame responses in the children. Guilt and shame are two distinct self-conscious emotions. Guilt is associated with a focus on one’s behaviour and a desire to make amends, while shame involves a focus on the self as fundamentally flawed
Significance of age groups: This age group (30-month-olds) is significant because it represents a developmental period when self-conscious emotions, including guilt and shame, are starting to emerge more clearly. Understanding these emotions in early childhood provides insights into the development of moral and emotional understanding
Earliest age to disassociate emotions: The ability to disassociate guilt and shame responses becomes more evident as children’s cognitive and emotional capacities develop. This study contributes to our understanding of when these distinctions can reliably be made
Evidence from broken toy paradigm: Drummond et al. collected evidence to suggest that distinct guilt and shame profiles could be identified in the children based on their responses to the broken toy. They looked at avoidance behaviours and other indicators associated with guilt and shame
Relationship to helping behaviours: The study explored how these guilt and shame profiles related to different types of helping behaviors: instrumental helping (goal-directed actions), empathic helping (responding to others’ emotional needs), and altruistic helping (sacrificing for others)
Results and helping behaviours: The researchers found that the guilt and shame profiles were related to differences in helping behaviours, but this relationship was specific to certain types of helping. For example, differences in the guilt and shame profiles were associated with variations in empathic helping tasks, where the child needed to identify and address another person’s emotional need
Implications: These findings have implications for understanding the early emergence of self-conscious emotions and their links to prosocial behaviours. The study highlights the complexity of the relationship between distinct emotional responses and different forms of helping behaviour in young children
Describe the three, traditional categories of temperament.
Traditional categories of temperament:
Easy temperament:
Characteristics: display a positive mood, adaptability, regular rhythmicity, and mild to moderate intensity of reactions
Behavioural examples: these children are generally easygoing, adaptable to routines, and show a positive response to various situations
Difficult temperament:
Characteristics: exhibit a negative mood, irregular rhythmicity, low adaptability, amd high intensity of reactions
Behavioural examples: difficult-tempered children may be fussy, have irregular sleep patterns, and react strongly to changes in routines
Slow-to warm up temperament:
Characteristics: Initially show a mild, low-key reaction to new stimuli or situations and gradually warm up over time
Behavioural examples: These children may need more time to adjust to new people or environments but eventually become more comfortable
What were the limitations of this categorical approach, and how has a dimensional approach improved the study of temperament?
Limitations of categorical approach
Oversimplification: The categorical approach oversimplifies the complexity of temperament by assigning individuals to discrete categories
Individual differences: It may not capture the full range of individual differences within each category
Dynamic nature: Children’s temperaments can change over time, and a static categorization may not capture this dynamic nature
Dimensional approach:
A dimensional approach to temperament considers temperament as a continuum rather than discrete categories. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of individual differences by considering multiple dimensions simultaneously
Be able to define the negative reactivity, surgency, and orienting regulation
Three dimensions of dimensional approach:
Negative reactivity (emotionally):
Definition: The extent to which a child reacts with negative emotions such as fear, anger, or sadness to novel or challenging stimuli
Behavioural examples: Easily distressed, fearful, or prone to anger in unfamiliar situations
Surgency/Extraversion (positive affectivity):
Definition: reflects the level of positive affect, activity level, and approach behaviour
Behavioural examples: active, outgoing, and cheerful children with generally positive mood
Orienting regulation (effortful control):
Definition: involves the child’s ability to regulate attention and inhibit responses
Behavioural examples: children with good orienting regulation are better able to focus attention, control impulses and adapt to changes
Advantages of dimensional approach:
Nuanced understanding: Allows for a more nuanced understanding of individual differences by considering various dimensions simultaneously
Captures variability: Recognizes the continuous nature of temperament, capturing the variability and diversity within each dimension
Dynamic assessment: Allows for dynamic assessments, acknowledging that temperament characteristics can change over time
Is temperament considered to be primarily biological/individual or based on the environment?
Temperament is considered to have both biological and environmental influences, reflecting an interaction between an individual’s innate predispositions and the experiences they encounter
Describe at least three pieces of evidence that support your answer, paying particular attention to the role of the amygdala, stress hormones, and relations between childhood temperament and adult outcomes/personality
Three pieces of evidence supporting the role of both biology and the environment in shaping temperament:
Biological influence: amygdala and temperament
Amygdala’s role: The amygdala, a brain structure involved in processing emotions, plays a crucial role in temperament. Individual differences in amygdala reactivity have been linked to temperamental traits, particularly negative reactivity and fearfulness
Evidence: Neuroimaging studies have shown that children with greater amygdala reactivity may exhibit higher levels of negative reactivity in response to novel or fearful stimuli. This suggests a biological basis for the emotional aspects of temperament
Biological influence: stress hormones and reactivity
Role of stress hormones: Stress hormones, such as cortisol, are associated with the physiological response to stress and emotional reactivity. Individual differences in cortisol reactivity have been linked to temperamental characteristics, especially in response to environmental stressors
Evidence: Research has demonstrated that children with higher cortisol reactivity may show heightened emotional reactivity to stressors. This supports the notion that biological factors, including hormonal responses, contribute to individual differences in temperament
Environmental influence: childhood temperament and adult outcomes
Longitudinal studies: Longitudinal studies have highlighted the importance of both biological and environmental factors in shaping temperament and influencing later outcomes. Childhood temperament has been found to predict various aspects of adult personality and well-being
Evidence: For example, children with a difficult temperament may be more prone to behavioural problems in adolescence, and these difficulties can extend into adulthood. Conversely, positive early temperament traits have been associated with better social and academic outcomes in adulthood
What is the “best” temperament and why? Provide examples of ways being “easy” and being “difficult” can each be adaptive
“Best” temperament:
No universally “best” temperament, as adaptability depends on the context and environment. Each temperament has its advantages and adaptive features
Adaptive features of “easy” temperament:
Social relationships: Children with an easy temperament may form positive social relationships more easily due to their approachable and adaptable nature
School success: Adaptability and positive mood can contribute to academic success as these children may be more open to learning experiences
Adaptive features of “difficult” temperament:
Vigilance and alertness: Children with a difficult temperament may exhibit heightened vigilance and alertness, which can be adaptive in environments with potential threats
Emotional sensitivity: Emotional intensity in response to stimuli can serve as an early warning system, helping the child navigate potentially challenging situations
Explain the historical significance of the Harlow monkey studies
The Harlow monkey studies conducted by Harry Harlow in the 1950s and 1960s were of paramount historical significance in challenging prevailing notions about attachment, maternal care, and the impact of social relationships on psychological development. Harlow’s experiments involved rhesus monkeys and were primarily aimed at understanding the nature of infant-mother bonding
What notions did it challenge? (Harlow monkey studies)
Challenging Notions:
Feeding vs contact comfort:
Prevailing belief: At the time, the prevailing belief, largely influenced by behaviourist theories, was that the primary basis for infant-mother attachment was the satisfaction of physiological needs, particularly feeding
Challenge by Harlow: Harlow’s studies challenged this view by demonstrating that infant monkeys, when given a choice, preferred spending time with a soft, comforting surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided nourishment
Importance of maternal care
Prevailing belief: The behaviourist perspective minimized the role of maternal care beyond meeting basic physiological needs. It emphasized the transactional nature of caregiver-infant interactions, focusing on external rewards and reinforcement
Challenge by Harlow: Harlow’s work underscored the significance of maternal care in the form of comfort, warmth, and emotional support. The surrogate mother that provided a sense of security and comfort was crucial for the monkeys’ well-being
Attachment and its importance:
Attachment definition: Attachment refers to the close, enduring emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, usually the mother. It involves a set of behaviours that seek to maintain proximity to the caregiver and a sense of security in their presence
What is attachment and why is it important? (Harlow monkey studies)
Survival and safety: Attachment is considered adaptive from an evolutionary perspective as it promotes the survival and safety of the infant. Proximity to the caregiver ensures protection from potential threats
Emotional regulation: Attachment provides a secure base for emotional regulation. The caregiver serves as a source of comfort, helping the child manage distressing emotions and navigate the challenges of the environment
Social and cognitive development: Secure attachment has been linked to positive social and cognitive development. Children with secure attachments tend to exhibit better social skills, emotional regulation, and cognitive outcomes
Internal working models: Attachment experiences contribute to the formation of internal working models, which are mental representations of relationships. These models guide individuals in their interactions with others throughout life
Attachment theory (john bowlby): John Bowlby, building on Harlow’s work, developed attachment theory. He emphasized the biological basis of attachment and the importance of a secure base for exploration and development
Be able to describe milestones in the development of attachment. At 12 months old, 18 months old, and 24+ months old, would we expect to see: separation anxiety, formed attachments, generalization of internal model of attachment, and reciprocal relationships?
12 months old:
Separation anxiety: Typically, separation anxiety becomes evident around this age. Infants may show distress when separated from their primary caregiver
Formed attachments: By 12 months, infants often form strong attachments to their primary caregivers, usually the mother but not exclusively
18 months old:
Generalization of internal model of attachment: At this age, children may start to generalize their internal working model of attachment to other caregivers or individuals. The attachment system becomes more flexible
24+ months old:
Reciprocal relationships: By the age of 2 years and beyond, children begin to engage in more reciprocal relationships with their caregivers. This involves a two-way interaction where the child not only seeks comfort but also understands and responds to the needs of the caregiver
Be able to describe typical responses on the strange situation test for children with different attachment types. Are these profiles of responses relatively stable across cultures or westernized? How do different environmental factors (e.g., the number of caretakers) shape stable attachment? Where we do see cultural differences, how dramatic or subtle are they? How does this affect mental health outcomes?
Secure attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Securely attached children use the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. They may explore the environment when the caregiver is present, show mild distress when separated, and seek comfort and easily settle upon the caregiver’s return
Cultural stability: Secure attachment tends to be relatively stable across cultures, and it is considered a positive attachment outcome
Environmental factors: Stability in attachment is often associated with consistent caregiving and a secure home environment
Insecure-avoidant attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Children with insecure-avoidant attachment may avoid or ignore the caregiver both when present and upon return. They might not show distress during separation
Cultural stability: This attachment type also shows some cross-cultural stability, but the prevalence may vary
Environmental factors: Factors such as inconsistent caregiving or neglect can contribute to the development of insecure-avoidant attachment
Insecure-resistant/anxious attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Children with insecure-resistant attachment may be clingy and show extreme distress upon separation. They might resist comfort upon the caregiver’s return
Cultural stability: Similar to avoidant attachment, there is some cross-cultural stability, but prevalence may differ
Environmental factors: Inconsistent caregiving, where the caregiver is unpredictable in responsiveness, can contribute to insecure-resistant attachment
Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
Behaviour in the SST: Children with disorganized/disoriented attachment show a lack of consistent strategy. Their behaviour may be contradictory or bizarre
Cultural stability: This attachment type shows less stability across cultures, and prevalence rates can vary
Environmental factors: Disorganized attachment is often associated with experiences of trauma, abuse, or neglect
Environmental factors and cultural differences
The number of caretakers, caregiving practices and cultural norms around independence can influence attachment stability
In cultures where multiple caregivers are the norm, attachment patterns may adjust accordingly
Cultural differences in parenting styles and expectations can lead to subtle variations in attachment outcomes
Impact on mental health
Secure attachment is generally associated with positive mental health outcomes
Insecure attachment types, especially disorganized attachment, may be linked to later mental health challenges, but individual and environmental factors play crucial roles
