Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
weeks 1-3
1
Q
how many vertebrate species have been discovered?
A
70,000
2
Q
What is a vertebrate?
A
phylum Chordata subphylum vertebrata
3
Q
What are the characteristics of Chordata?
A
post anal tail for locomotion
dorsal hallow nerve cord (spinal) for communication
endostyle to produce mucus and trap food
4
Q
what are the characteristics of vertebrata?
A
vertebrae and cranium
5
Q
What is special about the hagfish classification?
A
it used to be considered a craniate, now it is considered a vertebrate
6
Q
what is systematics?
A
the study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms
7
Q
what method is used to study systematics?
A
cladistics
8
Q
What does cladistics do?
A
determines groups of organisms based on evolutionary history regardless of overall similarity/difference
9
Q
what is the objective of cladistics?
A
to create monophyletic groups based on shared derived characters not ancestral characters
10
Q
what is a derived characteristic?
A
a characteristic that is newly evolved from the previous state
11
Q
what does monophyletic mean?
A
an ancestor and all of its descendants
12
Q
How does cladistic grouping work?
A
no taxonomic group names (no classes or families), old groups not recognized because of new monophyletic groups
13
Q
what is a paraphyletic group?
A
a group with a common ancestor but some descendants are excluded (NOT RECOGNIZED AS VALID)
14
Q
What is a sister group?
A
a group of organisms most closely related to another group (share the same branch of evolutionary tree)
15
Q
What are the 4 chordate groups?
A
cephalochordata, urochordata, olfactores, vertebrata
16
Q
how many species of cephalopchordata are there?
A
~25 species
17
Q
what are cephalochordates?
A
marine filter feeders, lancelets
18
Q
what does dioecious mean?
A
separate sexes [cephalochordata]
19
Q
What are the general traits of cephalochordata?
A
- muscle blocks separated by connective tissue (myomeres)
- simple brain
- caudal fin
- cyrtopodocytes
- ventral to dorsal blood flow through pharyngeal bars
- digestive system
20
Q
what are cyrtopodocytes?
A
excretory cells in the pharynx attached to capillaries, transfers wastes to the atrium
21
Q
what is excretion?
A
the removal of metabolic waste from blood
22
Q
What is the glomerulus?
A
a network of capillaries
23
Q
how does ventral to dorsal blood flow through the pharyngeal bars work in cephalochordata?
A
gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion, and the ventral aorta and bulbilli do most of the pumping since they have no hearts
24
Q
What do lancelets lack?
A
gill tissue
25
What is the order of a cephalochordata digestive system?
food -> pharyngeal bars -> endostyle -> gut
26
where does most digestion occur in cephalochordata?
both intra and extracellular digestions occurs in the cecum
27
What is egestion?
the removal of undigested food waste via the anus [cephalochordata do this as well]
28
How does water move through a cephalochordata?
water -> pharyngeal slits -> atrium -> atriopore
29
what are the derived characteristics of olfactores?
molecular similarities, presence of neural crest cells
30
What are neural crest cells?
cells that originate from the developing nerve cord and form other nervous system structures
31
How many species are urochordata?
~3,000 species
32
what are urochordata?
marine filter feeders
33
What is the derived character of urochordata?
the tunic: a protective covering made of cellulose
34
what are the general traits of tunicate adults?
mostly sessile (sedentary), lack some chordate characters, monoecious, heart that pumps in 2 directions
35
What does monoecious mean?
no separate sexes [in tunicates have both testes and ovaries]
36
what are the general traits of tunicate larvae?
free swimming, all 4 chordate characters
37
why do tunicates have a larvae stage if its so short?
it is important for dispersal since tunicate adults are sedentary
38
How many species are vertebrata?
~70,000
39
what are the derived characters of vertebrata?
cranium
vertebrae
3-part brain
neurogenic placodes
muscular pharynx and gut
40
what are the general traits of vertebrata?
duplication of Hox genes
inner ear: semicircular canals
41
[vertebrata] what are the 3 parts of the brain and why are there 3 parts?
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
higher motor control and processing
42
[vertebrata] what are neurogenic placodes?
cell clusters that give rise to sensory organs
43
[vertebrata] what do the muscular pharynx and gut do?
support the gill arches, and gill filaments
44
[vertebrata] what are the benefits of a muscular pharynx?
more control/ more efficient
pumps H2O through gills to improve efficiency of gas exchange
45
[vertebrata] what are the benefits of a muscular gut?
improve digestive efficiency, move food faster through the gut via peristalsis
46
what do Hox genes do?
they regulate genes that control embryonic development
47
what is the function of the semicircular canals?
improve balance and equilibrium
48
Fill in blanks A/I on chordata evolutionary tree
A: chordata
I: postanal tail, notochord
49
Fill in blank B on chordata evolutionary tree
B: cephalochordata
50
Fill in blank C/F on chordata evolutionary tree
C: urochordata
F: tunic
51
Fill in blanks D/H on chordata evolutionary tree
D: olfactores
H: neural crest cells, DNA similarities
52
Fill in blanks G/E on chordata evolutionary tree
G: 3 part brain, neurogenic placodes
E: vertebrata
53
what are "agnathans" and why is it quotes?
quotes because it is not a monophyletic group, it is instead based on shared ancestral characters and due to traits they lack
54
What ancestral characters do "agnathans" have?
gametes released into coelom
55
what traits do "agnathans" lack?
lack jaws and paired fins
56
What groups make up "agnatha"?
cyclostomes, "ostracoderms"
57
what are the subcategories of cyclostomes?
myxiniformes, petromyzontiformes
58
What are myxiniformes?
Hagfish
59
what are petromyzontiformes?
lamprey
60
how many species of myxiniformes?
~75 species (all marine)
61
where do myxiniformes live/what do they do?
benthic deep water, burrow into sediment
62
what are the derived characters of myxiniformes?
slime glands
63
[myxiniformes] what do slime glands do, why do they do it, and how many are there?
secrete massive amounts of mucus
to deter predators
200 along body
64
what are the general traits of myxiniformes?
vertebrae called arcualia
many gill pouches (1-15 pairs of gill openings)
1 pair of semicircular canals
65
How do gill pouches work?
drain through internal ducts to an external gill slit (one on each side of body)
66
How many external gill slits do hagfish have?
most common species have only 1 pair of external gill slits
67
how many species are there of petromyzontiformes?
~40 (6 found in PA)(marine and freshwater)
68
what is special about the sea lamprey?
it is andromous, meaning adults are marine and return to freshwater rivers to breed, then die after breeding
69
What are the derived characters of petromyzontiformes?
round mouth with buccal funnel
7 pairs of gill pouches (all open to outside)
tidal ventilation
70
What is tidal ventilation in petromyzontiformes?
H2O goes in/out gill openings, very inefficient
71
why do lampreys use tidal ventilation even though it is inefficient?
they are parasites, using buccal funnel to attach to their hosts. using tidal ventilation allows them to feed and respire at the same time
72
What are the general traits of petromyzontiformes?
vertebrae: arcualia with dorsal elements
well developed eyes
2 dorsal fins
2 pairs semicircular canals
73
What are petromyzontiformes diet?
they are parasites, feeding on fish
using their buccal funnel and tongue, with keratinized "teeth"
74
how many species of "ostracoderms" are there?
none, they are extinct
75
what was the approximate size of ostracoderms?
<50cm in size
76
What are the derived characters of "ostracoderms"
dermal bone plates
paired fins (both pelvic and pectoral)
paired nostrils
77
Why are jaws important?
attack and catch prey
processing food
defense
building nests
mating (grasp mates or courtship displays)
78
What are the types of gnathostomata?
placoderms, chondrichthyes, osteichthyes
79
what are the derived characters of placoderms?
jaws
paired pelvic fins
3 pairs of semicircular canals
80
what are chondrichthyes?
cartilaginous fish
81
what are the derived characters of chondrichthyes?
placoid scales
pelvic claspers in males (for internal fertilization)
specialized calcification of cartilage
82
label all missing parts of the "agnathans" evolutionary tree (D is above C)
A: vertebrata
B: cyclostomes (1 nostril, velum)
C: slime glands
D: myxiniformes
E: buccal funnel, tidal ventilation
F: petromyzontiformes
G:paired nostrils, dermal bones
H: "ostracaderms"
I: gnathostomata (jawed fish)
83
what are the general characters of chondrichthyes?
cartilaginous skeleton (mineralization secondarily lost)
increased buoyancy
jaws and vertebrae calcified
series of replacement teeth
84
what are the two subdivisions of chondrichthyes?
holocephali and elasmobranchii
85
what is the common name for holocephali?
ratfishes
86
how many species of holocephali?
~50 species all marine
87
what are the derived characters of holocephali?
1 pair of gill openings (covered by fleshy operculum)
palatoquadrate fused to cranium
holostylic jaw suspension
88
what are the common names of elasmobranchii?
sharks, skates, rays
89
what are the derived characters of elasmobranchii?
separate, uncovered gill openings
hyostylic jaw suspension
only anterior palatoquadrate attached to cranium
90
how many species of elasmobranchii?
~1250, mostly marine
91
what's special about elasmobranchii?
of the carnivores: eat vertebrates and invertebrates
largest filter feeders
92
what are the derived characters of osteichthyes?
swim bladder to adjust buoyancy and maintain position in water column while swimming
dermal rays in fins
93
what are osteichthyes?
bony fish
94
what are the two subcategories of osteichthyes?
actinopterygii, sacropterygii
95
how many species of actinopterygii?
>34,000 all aquatic
96
what is the common name of actinopterygii?
ray-finned fishes
97
what are the derived characters of actinopterygii?
multiple radial bones support fins
forebrain develops by folding outward
98
what is the common name of sarcopterygii?
lobe-finned fishes
99
how many species of sarcopterygii?
~8 species mostly freshwater
100
what are two examples of sarcopterygii?
lungfishes- breathe air
coelocanth- marine
101
what are the derived characters of sarcopterygii?
muscular lobes at fin base
single series of bones supporting fins
102
label the evolutionary tree of gnathostomata
A: gnathostomata (3 pairs semicircular canals, jaws, paired pelvic fins)
B: placoderms +
C: holocephali
D: fused palatoquadrate to cranium
E: condrichthyes (placoid scales, pelvic claspers)
F: palatoquadrate anterior attachment to cranium
G: elasmobranchii
H: actinopterygii
I: forebrain folds outward
J: muscular lobe
K: sarcopterygii
L: osteichthyes (swim bladder, dermal rays)
103
what are the derived characters of tetrapoda?
4 limbs with digits
104
how many species of amphibia are there?
~8,300
105
what does amphibia mean?
double life
106
how are amphibia aquatic/semi aquatic?
need H2O for reproduction and respiration, for reproductions because need to prevent eggs from drying out
107
what are the groups within amphibia?
caecilians, salamanders, frogs/toads
108
what are the derived characters of amphibians?
pedicellate teeth (tooth joint, flexible, aids in handling prey), thin skin, mucous glands (moist skin for respiration
109
what are the derived characters of aves?
feathers, hollow bones, air sacs
110
why are air sacs special?
most efficient respiratory system of terrestrial vertebrates
111
what is integument?
the interface between internal and external, covering all surfaces even eyes (conjunctiva)
112
what are the 2 layers of integument?
epidermis and dermis
113
what is the epidermis?
multilayered level of integument containing glands and having continuous cell division
114
why does the epidermis have continuous cell division?
to repair wounds and replace dead cells that shed
115
what is the dermis?
layers of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves, layer that attaches to body wall musculature
116
what epidermis layers are nonliving coverings?
mucus cuticle and stratum corneum
117
what is the mucus cuticle?
a thin coat of mucus continually secreted for moisture, antibacterial properties and defense
118
what is the stratum corneum?
layer of dead cornified cells (become infused with keratin and die) that is waterproof and in terrestrial vertebrates prevents desiccation
119
what is contained in the epidermis of aquatic vertebrates?
mucus glands, granular glands (can also make mucus, or chemicals to repel predators), keratin
120
what aquatic vertebrates have keratin and where?
cyclostomes and tadpoles
cornified spines "teeth"
121
what glands do tetrapods have?
mucus (absent from mot but amphibians have), granular
122
what do granular glands do in amphibians?
secrete toxins, release pheromones
123
what are pheromones?
chemicals released into the environment that affect the physiology of other individuals for mate attraction
124
why do certain animals have warning colors?
to advertise their unpalatability to predators (aposematic coloration)
125
why are the avian glands?
uropygial gland
126
what does the uropygial gland do?
secretes oil for feather conditioning (prominent in waterfowl due to waterproofing ability)
127
what glands do mammals have?
sebaceous, ceruminous, sudoriferous, scent, mammary
128
what are sebaceous glands?
glands that open into the hair follicle and produce sebum, an oily conditioner
129
what are ceruminous glands?
glands that produce cerumen (ear wax) in the outer ear canal, work with hairs in ear canal to capture particles that could damage ear drum
130
what are sudoriferous glands?
sweat glands that produce watery secretions for the functions of thermoregulatory cooling (via evaporative cooling)
131
where are sudoriferous glands located?
varies between different mammals
rabbits=lips, monkeys=palms etc
132
what are scent glands?
modified sebaceous and sudoriferous glands that produce pheromones and defense chemicals
133
what are mammary glands?
compound alveolar glands that produce milk high in lipids, number is related to general number of offspring a species produces at one time
134
What stratum corneum derivatives do tetrapods have?
epidermal scales, claws/nails/hooves, feathers, hair, horns
135
what kind of epidermal scales do squamates have and what do thy do?
thickening of stratum corneum (2 layers) that overlap with joints to serve as protection from abrasion
136
what kind of epidermal scale do turtles have?
turtles have scutes, which are nonoverlapping scales of stratum corneum that shed/continually wear over time.
137
what is a turtles dorsal and ventral shell called?
dorsal: carapace
ventral: plastron
138
do birds have epidermal scales?
Yes! birds have localized epidermal scales covering their feet
139
what mammals have epidermal scales?
armadillo, pangolin, beaver (tails)
140
what animals have claws?
first appeared in amniotes, now mainly cats and squamates
141
what animals have nails?
humans and primates
142
what animals have hooves?
many mammals, known as ungulates
143
what is similar about nails and hooves?
continually grow and wear over time
144
describe the structure of feathers
rachis=shaft
calamus= quill
vane= made of barbs
145
what does plumaceous mean?
loosely organized barbs
146
what does pennaceous mean?
barbs tightly knit together into a broad surface
147
what are the five types of feather?
contour, bristle, filoplume, down, semiplume
148
what is a contour feather?
2 types:
body: streamlined shape
flight: strong flat surface to generate lift and thrust
149
what is a bristle feather?
tactile receptor for foraging (like whiskers)
150
what is a filoplume?
air receptor around wings to help pick up windspeed and direction
151
what are down feathers?
for insulation
152
what are semiplumes?
for both insulation and streamlined shape, used in mating behavior
153
what are pterylae?
feather tracts
154
what are apteria?
areas without feathers on a birds skin to improve flexibility and provide places for heat loss
PENGUINS ARE EXCEPTION: NO APTERIA
155
what is pelage?
dense covering of hair
156
what is guard hair?
hair that protects against wear and creates color patterns
157
what is underhair?
tightly packed hairs for insulation
158
what is the arrector pilli?
smooth muscles attached to hair follicles that adjust hair position to make it better for insulation (increase ability to trap air, makes goosebumps in people)
159
what are the types of horns?
bovine, pronghorn, hair
160
what are bovine horns?
sheath of keratin covering dermal bone that never sheds
161
what are pronghorns?
branched horns with shealths that shed
162
what are hair horns?
mass of keratin fibers that never shed and sit on the nasal bone
163
what are antlers?
structures made of dermal bone that grow underneath a velvet integument which comes from epidermis and dermis. they are shed and replaced annually, and usually found in males and used to compete for mates
164
what are ossicones?
protrusion on giraffes and okapis that have a bone core that develops separate from the skull and are covered in skin, and never shed
165
what are chromatophores?
pigment cells
166
what is the dermis?
a thick matrix of collagen fibers with proteins for support and protection and mineral depositions that assist in bone production
167
what do ostracoderms and placoderms have in terms of dermis?
plates of primative dermal bone composed of 4 layers (compact, spongy, dentin, enamel) as well as denticles (projections of dentin and enamel, scale like in appearance)
168
what are the types of scales?
placoid, cosmoid, ganoid. elasmoid (cycloid and ctenoid)
169
what are placoid scales?
scales consisting of a bony plate and a spine (spine is a denticle made of dentin covered by enameloid), these give rise to teeth in gnathostomes
170
what are cosmoid scales?
cosmine layer under the enamel, occur in the extinct sarcopterygii
171
what are ganoid scales?
scales that lack dentin, occur in primitive actinopterygii (gar)
172
what do cosmoid and ganoid scales have in common?
both types have spongy (vascular) and compact (lamellar) bone
173
what are elasmoid scales?
scales with thin layers of compact bone (very flexible)
174
what is the difference between cycloid and ctenoid scales?
cycloid: round pattern, smooth
ctenoid: "teeth", rough, comb like border (sarcopterygii and actinopterygii)
175
what type of dermal bone do tetrapods have?
compact bone only
176
which tetrapods have dermal bone?
osteoderms: small bony scales
caecilians
crocodiles
177
what kind of dermal bone do turtles have?
dermal plates under the scutes, fuse to ribs and vertebrae EXCEPT LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLES AND SOFT SHELL TURTLES
178
what are other dermal bones we discussed?
birds: mostly absent
mammals: rare except armadillos have dermal armor
179
what is the skeleton made of?
mineralized tissue (cartilage and bone), bundles of collagen fibers (tendons, ligaments)
180
what do tendons and ligaments do?
connects muscle to bone
connects bone to bone
181
what are the categories of bone?
membrane and endochondral
182
what is membrane bone?
bone that forms from membranous sheets of mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue), dermal bone when made in the dermis
183
what is endochondral bone?
bone produced only with cartilage precursors
184
what are the 3 growth areas in bones?
middle of shaft (short lived)
epiphyseal plates: one at each end (growth plates)
185
how do growth plates work?
cartilage is first produced and then ossifies
in bird and mammals the plates ossify at maturity (determinate growth)
186
what is indeterminate growth?
most vertebrate growth is continuous throughout life
187
what is the axial skeleton?
vertebral column
ribs and sterna
skull
188
what are vertebrae composed of?
centrum
neural arch (contains spinal cord)
apophyses (processes)
hemal arch (tail in fish, contains caudal artery and vein)
189
what in amniotes is homologous to hemal arch in fish?
chevron bone in caudal vertebrae
190
what are zygapophyses?
paired arterial facets where vertebrae lock together which limits dorsoventral flexion
191
what is the vertebral column in "agnathans"?
arcualia
192
what is the vertebral column in jawed fish?
has little specialization apart from dorsals (trunk) and caudals (tail) mainly to allow for lateral movements
193
why do amphibia need water for respiration?
gas diffuses in/out of water into blood
194
what are the derived characters of amniota?
amniotic egg (yolk sac and 3 new extraembryonic membranes)
195
what is the yolk sac for?
ancestral trait meant to store nutrents
196
what are amnion (and chorion)?
fluid filled sacs to prevent desiccations and protect against shocks
197
what does the amnion/chorion fuse to and why?
the allantois (stores waste) allowing the embryo to develop out of water and grow larger/ become highly vascularized for gas exchange
198
what does amniote systematics entail?
the skull and temporal fenestra (opening in skull in temporal region)
199
what are the 3 types of amniotes (in regards to fenestra?
anapsid (no fenestra), synapsid (1 fenestra) diapsid (2 fenestra)
200
what is the function of temporal fenestra?
increase surface area for jaw muscle attachment
more room for larger jaw
allows different orientation of jaw muscles to improve jaw action
201
what falls under synapsida and how many species?
mammalia, ~5500
202
what are the derived characters of synapsida mammalia?
synapsid skull, hair, mammary glands, endothermic (regulate body temp through metabolism)
203
what are sauropsida and what are the derived characters?
"reptiles" and birds
beta keratin in skin
uric acid
204
What are the types of amniotes?
synapsida, mammalia, sauropsida, diapsida, testudinia, squamata, lepidosauria, archiosauria, crocodilia, aves
205
how many species of squamata and what are the derived characters?
~11,000 species (HIGHEST DIVERSITY)
hemipenes, paired male copulatory organs, sperm groom, some secondary lost limbs, swallow prey larger than mouth
206
what are diapsida and what are the derived characters?
lizards and birds
diapsid skull
207
what are the derived characters of lepidosauria?
overlapping scales of keratin
transverse cloaca
208
What are testudinia, how many species and what are the derived characters?
turtles
~350
loss of diapsid skull (anapsid)
shell of keratin and bone
209
what are the derived characters of archosauria and what are archosauria?
crocodilia and aves
antorbita fenestra
triangular orbit shape
210
how many crocodilia species and what are the derived characters?
24
complete secondary palate so they can breathe with prey in their mouth
also drowns prey
211
What does the fish vertebral column look like in elasmobranchii?
Notochord present
Amphicelous centra (concave at both ends) limiting flexibility
Elastic ligament that connects the neural arches (and limits dorsoventral movement)
212
What does the fish vert column look like in actinopterygii?
Ossified(endochondral bone) with an Amphicelous center and supraneural bones that fuse to vertebrae and support the dorsal fin muscles
213
What are the different types of tetrapod vertebrae?
Amphicelous
Opisthocelous
Procelous
Acelous
214
what are amphicelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?
concave at both ends
some early amphibians and squamata
215
what are opisthocelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?
concave posterior
salamanders
216
what are procelous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?
concave anterior
frogs/toads and most sauropsids
217
what are acetous vertebrae and what tetrapods have them?
not concave, with an intervertebral disk between vertebrae (for distributing weight and pressure evenly)
mammals
218
what are the regions of tetrapod vertebral column
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal
219
why is tetrapod vertebrae different?
it has to support greater mass, increased flexibility for locomotion
220
what tetrapod vertebrae trends are there
most tetrapods only have ribs in the thoracic region
sacral vertebrae support the pelvic girdle
221
what is the exception to the general tetrapod vertebrae?
snakes and caecilians
(snakes: most vertebrae have ribs, largest number of vertebrae)
222
what is the function of snake vertebrae?
so many ribs to support trunk muscles, lots of flexibility for locomotion and to kill prey by constriction
223
what are the parts of snake vertebrae?
atlas and axis
pre caudal/thoracic (ones with ribs)
causals (no ribs)
224
egg eating snake has what
specialized ventral hypapophyses to crack eggs
225
how many cervical vertebrae do amphibians have
1
lacks processes
only allows head nodding motion
226
how many cervical vertebrae do amniotes have?
several with 2 highly modified (atlas and axis)
allows for considerable head mobility- flexible head to search for prey and watch for predators
227
how many cervical vertebrae do birds have?
the most- 12+
heterocelous: saddle shaped
allows for highest mobility
228
how many sacral vertebrae do the amphibians, sauropsids and mammals have
1
2
3-5
229
what is it called when the sacral vertebrae fuse into one structure and why is it beneficial?
sacrum
added strength
230
what is the synsacrum?
the fusion of vertebrae to the pelvic girdle in birds
large fused bone structure from thoracic to caudal to help with flight and bipedal locomotion
231
what are caudal vertebrae?
numerous and reduced process vertebrae located in a tail that allows for more flexibility
232
what does the caudal vertebrae look like in frogs/toads?
fused into what is called a urostyle which braces the pelvic girdle for jumping
233
what does the caudal vertebrae look like in squamates
made up of fracture planes (weak spots in centra) which allows for self amputation of tail as a distraction from predators which can then regenerate with cartilage
234
what does the caudal vertebrae look like in birds?
fused last causals called the prostyle which supports the tail
