Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
(457 cards)
1
Q
What the four basic tissues of the human body?
A
Epithelial, muscle, neural and connective tissues.
2
Q
What is the function of each type of bone cell?
A
Osteoblast - form bone
Osteocyte - maintain or nurture bone
Osteoclast - remodel bone
3
Q
What is the primary constituent of ground substance?
A
glycosaminoglycans
4
Q
What types of glycosaminoglycans predominate in bone?
A
chondroitin sulfates, keratin sulfates, and hyaluronic acid
5
Q
What is the principal type of protein fiber in bone?
A
type 1 collagen
6
Q
What are the primary constituents of bone mineral?
A
Calcium, phosphate, citrate and carbonate ions
7
Q
What is the most frequently described deposit in bone?
A
hydroxyapatite
8
Q
Bone is also the repository for what additional ions?
A
sodium, magnesium, fluoride, lead, strontium, and radium
9
Q
What three responses of “living” bone were stressed in class?
A
it has the ability to heal, to remodel under stressors such as anxiety, tension or pressure and to age
10
Q
Bone is the embryological derivative of which specific connective tissues?
A
mesenchyme and/or cartilage
11
Q
What is the name given to the pattern of ossification in mesenchyme?
A
intramembranous ossification
12
Q
What is the timing for the appearance of intramembranous ossification?
A
from the second to third month in utero
13
Q
What part of the axial skeleton is primarily formed by intramembranous ossification?
A
the skull
14
Q
What is the name given to the pattern of ossification in cartilage?
A
endochondral ossification
15
Q
What is the timing for the appearance of ossification in cartilage?
A
from the second to fifth month in utero
16
Q
Which skull bones are ossified by both endochondral and intramembranous ossification?
A
the mandible, sphenoid, temporal and occipital bones
17
Q
Which bone of the appendicular skeleton is formed by both endochondral and intramembranous ossification?
A
the clavicle
18
Q
What are the names given to the centers of ossification based on time of appearance?
A
primary centers of ossification appear before birth, secondary centers of ossification appear after birth
19
Q
Mature bone is described as being composed of what areas based on bone density?
A
cortical or compact bone and spongy, cancellous or trabecular bone
20
Q
What is the name given to the bone below an articulating surface?
A
subchondral bone
21
Q
What is the name of the outer fibro-cellular covering of bone?
A
the periosteum
22
Q
What is the name given to the fibro-cellular lining of bone?
A
the endosteum
23
Q
What are the primary sources of variation observed in bone?
A
sexual dimorphism (gender variation), ontogenetic variation (growth or age variation), geographic or population-based variation (ethnic variation) and idiosyncratic variation (individual variation)
24
Q
Differences in the number or morphology of vertebrae within the population based on male and female variation is identified as which type of variation?
A
sexual dimorphism or gender variation
25
Differences in the number or morphology of vertebrae within the population based on age or developmental variation is identified as which type of variation?
Ontogenetic variation
26
Differences in the number or morphology of vertebrae within the population based on ethnicity or locational variation is identified as which type of variation?
geographic variation or population based variation
27
Differences in the number or morphology of vertebrae within the population based on uniqueness between individuals is identified as which type of variation?
idiosyncratic variation
28
What are the six more commonly used classifications of normal bone?
long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, paranasal sinus or pneumatic bones and sesamoid bones
29
What are examples of short bones?
most of the bones of the carpus and tarsus
30
What is the characteristic of sesamoid bone?
the bone develops within a tendon
31
What are consistent examples of sesamoid bones?
patella and pisiform
32
Which classifications of bone are characteristic of the axial skeleton?
flat bones, irregular bones and paranasal sinus or pneumatic bones
33
What are examples of flat bones?
the parietal bone and the sternum
34
What are examples of Irregular bones?
the vertebrae and innominate bones
35
What is characteristic of pneumatic bone?
air spaces within the bone
36
What are examples of pneumatic bone?
frontal, ethmoid, maxilla, sphenoid, & temporal
37
What bones contain paranasal sinuses?
frontal, ethmoid, maxilla, & sphenoid
38
What are the classifications given to abnormal bone stressed in spinal anatomy?
accessory and heterotopic bone
39
What is the name given to bone formed from existing bone?
accessory bone
40
What are examples of accessory bone?
para-articular processes and bony spurs of vertebrae
41
What is the name given to bone formed in a non-bone location?
heterotopic bone
42
What are examples of heterotopic bone?
calcific deposits in the pineal gland, heart, and ligaments
43
What are the four basic surface feature categories?
elevations, depressions, tunnels or passageways and facets
44
When do the surface features of bone become prominent?
during and after puberty
45
What are the types of osseous elevations?
linear, rounded, and sharp
46
What are the types of osseous linear elevations?
the line, ridge and crest
47
What are the types of rounded osseous elevations?
tubercle, protuberance, trochanter, tuber or tuberosity and malleolus
48
What are the categories of sharp osseous elevations?
spine and process
49
What are the categories of osseous depressions?
linear and rounded depressions
50
What are the categories of osseous linear depressions?
notch or incisure, groove, and sulcus
51
What are the categories of rounded osseous depressions?
the fovea and fossa
52
What are the names given to openings on the surface of bone?
ostium or orifice and hiatus
53
What is the definition of an osseous ostium?
a round or oval opening on the surface of bone
54
What is the definition of an osseous hiatus?
an irregular opening on the surface of bone
55
What are the names given to osseous ostia which completely penetrate bone?
foramen or canal
56
What is the name given to osseous ostia which does not completely penetrate through a region of bone but appears as a blind-ended passageway?
meatus
57
What are the categories of osseous facets?
flat facets and rounded facets
58
What are the categories of rounded osseous facets?
articular heads and articular condyles
59
How many bones form the typical adult appendicular skeleton?
126 bones
60
How many bones form the typical adult axial skeleton?
80 bones
61
What bones form the axial skeleton?
the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs
62
What is the total number of bones forming the typical adult skull?
28 bones
63
What is the name given to the adult skull minus the mandible?
the cranium
64
What are the names given to the top of the adult skull?
the calvaria or calva
65
What are the categories of bone forming the typical adult skull?
the neurocranium, the facial skeleton (splanchnocranium or visceral cranium) and the auditory ossicles
66
What is the neurocranium?
the bones that support or protect the brain
67
How many bones form the typical adult neurocranium?
8 bones
68
What bones form the neurocranium of the typical adult skull?
the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid
69
How many bones form the facial skeleton (splanchnocranium or visceral skeleton)?
14 bones
70
What is the facial skeleton (splanchnocranium or visceral cranium)?
the bones that support the face or front of the head
71
What bones form the facial skeleton?
mandible, vomer, nasal, maxilla, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha, palatine and zygomatic
72
By strict definition, what is the splanchnocranium?
the bones that support the face minus the mandible
73
What bones form the splanchnocranium?
vomer, nasal, maxilla, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha, palatine and zygomatic
74
How many bones are present in the adult hyoid?
1 bone
75
What is the number of bones comprising each region of the typical adult spinal column or vertebral column?
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx
76
What is the name given to the presacral region of the typical adult vertebral column or spinal column?
the spine
77
What is the total number of bones forming the typical adult spine?
24
78
What is the definition of "spine" as it pertains to the vertebral column?
the presacral region of the vertebral column or spinal column
79
How many bones are present in the typical adult sternum?
1 bone
80
What regions are present along the typical adult sternum?
the manubrium sterni, the corpus sterni and the xiphoid process
81
How many ribs are present in the typical adult skeleton?
12 pairs or 24 ribs
82
What is the number of vertebrae in a typical adult?
26 segments ( 7 12 5 1 1)
83
What constitutes the spine?
the 24 presacral segments; the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae
84
How many segments unite to form the typical sacrum?
5 segments
85
How many segments unite to form the typical coccyx?
4 segments
86
What does the term "cervical" refer to?
the region of the neck
87
What is the typical number of segments in the cervical region?
7 segments
88
What does the term thoracic refer to?
breast plate or chest; it referred to the armor bearing region of the torso
89
What other term is often used to identify the vertebral segments of the chest?
the dorsal segments; the dorsals
90
What is the typical number of segments in the dorsal or thoracic region?
12 segments
91
What does the term "lumbar" refer to?
the loin; the region between the rib and the hip
92
What is the typical number of segments in the lumbar region?
5 segments
93
What does the term sacrum refer to?
the holy bone or holy region
94
What does the term "coccyx" refer to?
a cuckoo birds bill or cuckoo birds beak
95
What is the length of a typical male spinal column?
about 70 centimeters or 28 inches
96
What is the length of a typical female spinal column?
about 60 centimeters or 25 inches
97
What is the difference in length between a typical male and typical female spinal column?
about 3 inches
98
What is the length of the male cervical region?
about 12 centimeters of 5 inches
99
What is the length of the male thoracic region?
about 28 centimeters or 11 inches
100
What is the length of the male sacrum?
about 12 centimeters or 5 inches
101
Based on the numbers for individual regions of the vertebral column, what is the length of the male spine?
about 58 centimeters or 23 inches
102
How does the vertebral column participate in protection of neural tissues?
the spinal cord and beginning PNS are located within the vertebral segments
103
How does the vertebral column participate in protection of the viscera?
ribs are attached to vertebrae to form the thorax thus protecting the heart and lungs
104
What parts of the body are supported by the vertebral column?
the head, upper extremities, ribs, viscera, and pelvis
105
How does the vertebral column participate in skeletal formation?
ribs are formed from the costal process of the embryonic vertebral template
106
What levels of the vertebral column specifically accommodate weight-bearing transfer?
S1-S3 at the auricular surface
107
Distinguish between motion and locomotion
motion is movement without travel; locomotion is movement to a new site or location
108
What is specifically responsible for shape and position of the human frame?
comparative anterior vs. posterior height of the vertebral body and comparative anterior vs. posterior height of the intervertebral disc
109
What organ(s) is(are) specifically associated with the horizontal axis of the skull?
the eye and the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear
110
How is the vertebral column involved in stabilization of visceral function?
integrity of the spinal column enhances appropriate nerve system control of viscera
111
When does the embryonic disc form?
second week in utero
112
When does granulation occur or a 3 layered embryo form?
third week in utero
113
Invagination of ectoderm along the primitive streak gives rise to what embryonic structure?
notochord
114
What is the name given to the mesoderm that will give rise to the vertebral column?
paraxial mesoderm
115
What does paraxial mesoderm give rise to that will form the vertebral column?
somites
116
Name the areas of cellular differentiation formed within the somite
sclerotome, myotome, and dermatome
117
What part of the somite will give rise to the vertebral column?
sclerotome
118
List, in order, the names of the successive vertebral columns formed during development
membranous, cartilaginous, skeletal or osseous
119
Migration of sclerotomes to surround the notochord forms what developmental feature?
the perichordal blastema
120
The perichordal blastema gives rise to what processes?
neural processes and costal processes
121
What is the name of the artery located between adjacent perichordal blastemae?
intersegmental artery
122
Cell proliferation within the perichordal blastema will result in what features?
a loose cranial sclerotomite and a dense caudal sclerotomite
123
What forms between the sclerotomites of a perichordal blastema?
the intrasclerotomal fissure ( fissure of von ebner)
124
The intrasclerotomal fissure (fissure of von ebner) gives rise to what developmental feature?
the perichordal disc
125
The perichordal is in the presumptive location of what adult feature?
the intervertebral disc
126
What is the earliest embryonic feature that will identify the position of the adult intervertebral disc?
the intrasclerotomal fissure (fissure of von ebner)
127
The union of a dense caudal sclerotomite and a loose cranial sclerotomite from adjacent perichordal blastamae gives rise to what feature?
the vertebral blastema
128
What vessel will be identified adjacent to the vertebral blastema?
the segmental artery
129
When will cartilage first form in the membranous vertebral blastemal?
beginning in the 6th embryonic week
130
What is the name given to the replacement of mesoderm by cartilage?
chondrification
131
Chondrification is first identified in which region of the embryonic vertebral column?
The cervical region
132
What are the names given to the centers of chondrification within the vertebral blastema?
centrum center, neural arch center, transverse process center
133
How many centers of chondrification typically appear in the vertebral blastema?
six...2 for the centrum, 2 for the neural arch, 2 for each transverse process
134
What is the earliest time that centers of ossification appear in the cartilaginous vertebra?
during the 7th embryonic week
135
Ossification begins in which region of the embryonic vertebral column?
the lower cervical-upper thoracic region
136
What is the ratio of primary to secondary centers of ossification for a typical vertebra?
3 primary centers, 5 secondary centers
137
What are the names of the primary centers of ossification for a typical vertebra?
centrum centers and neural arch centers
138
How many primary centers of ossification appear in the typical vertebra?
three...1 for the centrum, 2 for the neural arches
139
What is the classification of the joint forming between primary centers of ossification?
cartilage synchondrosis/ amphiarthrosis synchondrosis
140
What are the names of the synchondroses forming between primary centers of ossification in the typical vertebra?
neurocentral synchondrosis and neural arch synchondrosis
141
What are the names of the five secondary centers of ossification for a typical vertebra?
tip of the transverse, tip of the spinous process, epiphyseal plate centers
142
How many secondary centers of ossification appear in the typical vertebra?
five... 1 for the tip of each transverse process, 1 for the tip of the spinous process, 1 for each epiphyseal plate
143
What are the names of the synchondroses forming between secondary centers of ossification and the rest of the typical vertebra?
tip of the transverse process synchondrosis, tip of the spinous process synchondrosis, and epiphyseal ring synchondrosis
144
What is the range of appearance for secondary centers of ossification of a typical vertebra?
during puberty, typically ages 11-16 years old
145
What are the three basic osseous parts of a vertebra?
the vertebral body, vertebral arch, and the apophyseal regions
146
What is formed by the vertebral body and vertebral arch?
the vertebral foramen
147
What is the general shape of the vertebral body at each region of the spine?
Cervical - rectangular; thoracic - triangular; lumbar - reniform
148
What is the name given to the compact bone at the superior and inferior surfaces of the vertebral body?
superior epiphyseal rim, inferior epiphyseal rim
149
What is the name given to the cartilage found at the superior and inferior surface of a developing vertebral body?
superior epiphyseal plate, inferior epiphyseal plate
150
What are the names of the openings found around the margins of the vertebral body?
nutrient foramina or vascular foramina
151
What large opening is usually observed at the back of the vertebral body?
the basivertebral venous foramen
152
What is the name of the vessel entering the nutrient of vascular foramen?
osseous artery
153
What is the name given to the large vessel exiting the back of the vertebral body?
the basivertebral vein
154
What is the semicircular region of bone attached to the back of the vertebral body called?
the vertebral arch
155
What is the name given to the anterior part of the vertebral arch?
the pedicle
156
What is the name given to the posterior part of the vertebral arch?
the lamina
157
What is the name given to the intermediate part of the vertebral arch where the transverse process and articular processes attach?
the lamina-pedicle junction
158
What is the name of the feature located at the upper and lower surfaces of the pedicle?
the superior vertebral notch or superior vertebral incisure;
the inferior vertebral notch or inferior vertebral incisure
159
What is the generic orientation of the pedicle at each region of the spine?
cervical - posterolateral
thoracic - posterior, slight lateral
lumbar - posterior
160
All lamina are oriented in what direction?
posterior and medial
161
What is the name given to the overlap of laminae seen on xray?
shingling
162
What ligament will attach to the lamina?
the ligamentum flavum
163
What is the name given to abnormal bone at the attachment site of the ligamentum flavum?
para-articular process
164
What classification of bone will para-articular processes represent?
accessory bone
165
What is the name given to the lamina - pedicle junction at each region of the spine?
cervical - articular pillar; thoracic and lumbar - pars interarticularis
166
What is the name given to the junction of the vertebral arch - spinous process on lateral x-ray?
the spinolaminar junction
167
What is the name given to the tubular bone growth regions of the vertebral arch?
the apophyseal regions
168
What names may be given to each apophysis of the spine?
the transverse apophysis or transverse process; articular apophysis or articular process; spinous apophysis or spinous process
169
What is the generic orientation of the transverse process or transverse apophysis at each region of the spine?
cervical - anterolateral; thoracic - posterolateral; lumbar - lateral
170
All non-rib bearing vertebra of the spine retain what equivalent feature?
the costal element
171
What is the name given to the rounded elevation at the end of the transverse apophysis or transverse process?
the transverse tubercle
172
What will cause the transverse process / transverse apophysis to alter its initial direction in the cervical region?
cervical spinal nerves are pulled forward and downward to form the cervical and brachial nerve plexuses thus remodeling the transverse process to accommodate their new position
173
What will cause the transverse process / transverse apophysis to alter its initial direction in the thoracic region?
the growth of the lungs remodel the shape of the ribs which in turn push the transverse processes backward
174
What will the articular process/articular apophysis support?
the articular facet
175
What is the name given to the joint formed between articular facets of a vertebral couple?
the zygapophysis
176
What is the name given to the bone surface at the front of a zygapophysis?
the superior articular facet
177
What is the name given to the bone surface at the back of a zygapophysis?
the inferior articular facet
178
What names are given to the part of the vertebra which supports the front of the zygaphophysis?
the superior articular apophysis, the superior articular process, or the pre-zygapophysis
179
What names are given to the part of the vertebra which supports the back of the zygapophysis?
the inferior articular apophysis, the inferior articular process, or the post zygapophysis
180
In the vertebral couple, the part of the vertebra which lies anterior to the zygapophysis is called the ____?
pre-zygapophysis
181
In the vertebral couple, the part of the vertebra which lies posterior to the zygapophysis is called the ____?
post-zygapophysis
182
What is the name given to the part of the vertebra forming the pre-zygapophysis?
the superior articular process or superior articular apophysis
183
What is the name of the part of the vertebra forming the post-zygapophysis?
the inferior articular process or inferior articular apophysis
184
What is the method of calculating the angle of the spinous process / spinous apophysis?
calculate the angle formed between the undersurface of the spinous process / spinous apophysis and the horizontal plane
185
What is the name given to the normal overlap of spinous processes or spinous apophyses as seen on xray?
Imbrication
186
What is the name given to the rounded elevation at the tip of the spinous process / spinous apophysis?
the spinous tubercle
187
What is the orientation of the spinous process / spinous apophysis at each region of the spine?
cervical - slight angle inferiorly
thoracic - noticeable angle inferiorly
lumbar - no inferior angle
188
What will form the posterior boundary of a typical intervertebral foramen?
the inferior articular process / post-zygapophysis, the superior articular process / pre-zygapophysis, the capsular ligament, and the ligamentum flavum
189
What will form the superior boundary of a typical intervertebral foramen?
the inferior vertebral notch or inferior vertebral incisure
190
What will form the inferior boundary of a typical intervertebral foramen?
the superior vertebral notch or superior vertebral incisure
191
What will form the anterior boundary of a typical intervertebral foramen?
the vertebral body of the segment above, the vertebral body of the segment below, the intervertebral disc, and the posterior longitudinal ligament
192
What is the name given to the opening located within the vertebral body - vertebral arch enclosure?
the vertebral foramen
193
The union of all vertebral foramina forms an apparent vertical cylinder called the ______.
the vertebral canal or spinal canal
194
What neural structures will occupy the vertebral foramen until the level of L2?
The spinal cord/spinal medulla/medulla spinalis, the proximal part of the peripheral nerve system, and the meninges
195
What is the typical shape/outline of the vertebral foramen at each region of the spinal column/vertebral column?
cervical - triangular; thoracic - oval; lumbar - triangular; sacrum - triangular
196
At what vertebral level will the spinal cord typically terminate?
L1
197
At what vertebral level will the dural sac typically terminate?
S2
198
What are the segmental arteries?
the arteries whose branches supply the vertebra or segment
199
Identify all segmental arteries of the vertebral column.
vertebral, ascending cervical, deep cervical, superior (highest) intercostal, posterior intercostal, subcostal, lumbar, iliolumbar, lateral sacral and median sacral
200
What are the segmental arteries of the cervical spine?
the vertebral artery, ascending cervical artery and deep cervical artery
201
What are the segmental arteries of the thoracic spine?
the deep cervical artery, superior (highest) intercostal artery, posterior intercostal artery and subcostal artery
202
What are the segmental arteries of the lumbar spine?
the lumbar arteries, iliolumbar artery, lateral sacral artery, and median (middle) sacral artery
203
What are the segmental arteries of the fifth lumbar vertebra?
the iliolumbar artery, lateral sacral artery and median (middle) sacral artery
204
What are the segmental arteries of the sacrum?
the iliolumbar artery, lateral sacral artery and median (middle) sacral artery
205
What segmental levels are supplied by the vertebral artery?
C1-C6
206
What segmental levels are supplied by the ascending cervical artery?
C1-C6
207
What segmental levels are supplied by the deep cervical artery?
C7-T1
208
What segmental levels are supplied by the superior (highest) intercostal artery?
T1, T2
209
What segmental levels are supplied by the posterior intercostal artery?
T3-T11
210
What segmental level(s) is/are supplied by the subcostal artery?
T12
211
What segmental levels are supplied by the lumbar arteries?
L1-L4
212
What segmental levels are supplied by the median (middle) sacral artery?
L5, S1-S5 and coccyx
213
What segmental levels are supplied by the iliolumbar artery?
L5, S1-S5 and coccyx
214
What segmental level(s) is/are supplied by the lateral sacral artery?
L5, S1-S5 and coccyx
215
Which vertebra has the greatest number of segmental arteries associated with it?
L5
216
What are the segmental arteries for L5?
iliolumbar artery, median (middle) sacral artery and lateral sacral artery
217
What branch of the segmental artery supplies the vertebra and the paravertebral region?
dorsospinal artery
218
Which artery is primarily observed in the distal part of the intervertebral foramen?
spinal artery
219
Which branch of the dorsospinal artery will penetrate the meninges to enter subarachnoid space?
spinal artery
220
What are the branches of the spinal artery?
osseous arteries, anterior spinal canal artery, posterior spinal canal artery, anterior medullary feeder artery, posterior medullary feeder artery, anterior radicular artery, posterior radicular artery
221
What branches of the spinal artery supply the contents of the epidural space?
osseous arteries, anterior spinal canal artery, posterior spinal canal artery
222
What arteries are observed in the epidural space near the posterior longitudinal ligament?
anterior spinal canal artery and plexus
223
What arteries are observed in the epidural space near the ligamentum flavum?
posterior spinal canal artery and plexus
224
What branches of the spinal artery supply the contents of the subarachnoid space?
anterior radicular artery, posterior radicular artery, anterior medullary feeder artery, posterior medullary feeder artery
225
Which vessel will supply the ventral/anterior nerve rootlet and nerve root?
anterior radicular artery
226
Which vessel will supply the dorsal/posterior nerve rootlets/posterior nerve rootlets, nerve root and nerve root ganglion?
posterior radicular artery
227
Which artery is now said to enlarge and form the medullary feeder artery?
the radicular artery
228
What is the name given to the artery that lies in front of the spinal cord along its length?
anterior spinal artery
229
The anterior spinal artery is a branch of which artery?
the vertebral artery
230
Is the anterior spinal artery a single, continuous artery along the spinal cord?
No
231
As the anterior spinal artery continues along the spinal cord, which arteries unite along its length to give the appearance of a single continuous vessel?
anterior medullary feeder arteries
232
The posterior spinal artery is a branch of which artery?
the posterior inferior cerebellar artery
233
What is the position of the posterior spinal artery relative to the spinal cord?
it lies in the posterolateral sulcus along the spinal cord
234
Is the posterior spinal artery a single continuous artery along the spinal cord?
No
235
As the posterior spinal artery continues along the spinal cord, which arteries unite along its length given the appearance of a single continuous vessel?
posterior medullary feeder arteries
236
What forms the arterial vasa corona?
anterior spinal arteries, posterior spinal arteries, and communicating arteries
237
What is the generic name given to arteries that penetrate the spinal cord?
intramedullary arteries
238
What are the intramedullary branches of the arterial vasa corona?
pial perforating arteries and central/ventral/sulcal perforating arteries
239
What artery gives off the ventral/central/sulcal perforating arteries?
the anterior spinal artery
240
What arterial vasa corona branches supply gray matter and most of the spinal cord?
ventral/central/sulcal perforating arteries
241
What intramedullary branches supply about one third of the spinal cord?
pial perforating arteries
242
What is the source for pial perforating arteries?
the pial plexus
243
What arteries form the pial plexus?
the posterior spinal arteries and the communicating arteries
244
What arteries are responsible for supplementing the arterial vasa corona along the cord?
anterior medullary feeders and posterior medullary feeders
245
What vessels drain the spinal cord?
pial veins
246
What will pial veins drain into?
venous vasa corona
247
Which vessels form the venous vasa corona?
anterior longitudinal veins, posterior longitudinal veins, and communicating veins
248
Which vessels will drain the venous vasa corona?
anterior medullary veins, posterior medullary veins
249
Which vessels will drain the ventral/anterior nerve roots?
anterior radicular veins
250
Which vessels will drain the dorsal/posterior nerve roots?
posterior radicular veins
251
What vessel will drain the dorsal/posterior nerve root ganglion?
posterior radicular veins
252
What veins are observed in the epidural space near the posterior longitudinal ligament?
anterior internal vertebral venous plexus, basivertebral vein
253
What lumenal feature of the anterior internal venous plexus vessels may function like valves of typical veins?
trabeculae
254
What veins are observed in the epidural space near the ligamentum flavum?
posterior internal vertebral venous plexus
255
What venous vessels are identified in the intervertebral foramen?
intervertebral veins
256
What is the unique feature of veins along the spinal canal?
they lack the bicuspid valve of typical veins
257
What is the name given to the fluid within the epidural space?
interstitial fluid
258
What are the vascular contents of the epidural space?
Anterior and posterior spinal canal artery and plexus; anterior and posterior internal vertebral venous plexus; basivertebral vein
259
What are the neural contents of the epidural space?
recurrent meningeal/sinu-vertebral/sinus vertebral nerve
260
What ligaments are associated with the epidural space?
Hofmann/anterior dural/meningovertebral ligaments
ligamentum flavum
posterior longitudinal ligament
261
Which of the blood vessels of the epidural space will be found near the vertebral body?
anterior spinal canal artery & plexus
anterior internal vertebral venous plexus
basivertebral vein
262
Which of the ligaments of the epidural space will be found near the vertebral body?
posterior longitudinal ligament and Hofmann/anterior dural/meningovertebral ligaments
263
Which of the blood vessels of the epidural space will be found near the lamina?
posterior spinal canal artery and plexus
| posterior internal vertebral venous plexus
264
Which of the nerves of the epidural space will be found near the lamina?
recurrent meningeal/sinu-vertebral, sinus vertebral nerve
265
Which of the ligaments of the epidural space will be found near the lamina?
ligamentum flavum and Hofmann/anterior dural/meningovertebral ligaments
266
Which meningeal space is now thought to be a potential space, not an actual space?
subdural space - between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater
267
Which of the contents of the epidural space are more likely located near or around the posterior longitudinal ligament?
anterior spinal canal artery and plexus
anterior internal vertebral venous plexus
basivertebral vein
recurrent meningeal/sinu-vertebral/sinus vertebral nerve
Hofmann/anterior dural/meningovertebral ligaments
268
Which of the contents of the epidural space will be found near the lamina?
posterior spinal canal artery and plexus
posterior internal vertebral venous plexus
ligamentum flavum
recurrent meningeal/sinu-vertebral/sinus vertebral nerve
Hofmann/anterior dural/meningovertebral ligaments
269
What is the name given to the fluid present within the subdural space?
serous fluid
270
What is the name given to the fluid with subarachnoid space?
cerebrospinal fluid
271
What ligaments may be present in the subarachnoid space?
dentate/denticulate ligament
272
What contents of the subarachnoid space are changed below the level C6?
the arterial vasa corona consists of 1 anterior spinal artery, 2 posterior spinal arteries and 3 communicating arteries
273
What is the name given to the lateral extension of pial mater along the spinal cord?
dentate (denticulate) ligament
274
What is the unique feature of veins along the spinal canal?
They lack the bicuspid valve of typical veins
275
In the horizontal view, what direction of the spinal cord tends to be largest?
transverse
276
What are the spinal cord enlargement locations and the name given to each?
C3-T1, the cervical enlargement; T9-T12, the lumbar (lumbosacral) enlargement
277
Where is the greatest transverse diameter of the spinal cord?
C6
278
In which plane (or direction) will the diameter of the spinal decrease from C2 down to T1?
midsagittal or anterior-posterior plane
279
What is a generic cord level of origin - vertebral level combination for the lumbar (lumbosacral) enlargement?
L1, L2 cord levels in T9 vertebra; L3, L4 cord levels in T10 vertebra; L5,S1 cord levels in T11 vertebra; S2, S3 cord levels in T12 Vertebra
280
What spinal nerves originate from the lumbar (lumbosacral) enlargement?
L1-S3 spinal nerves
281
What is the caudal end of the spinal cord called?
conus medullaris
282
What spinal nerves originate from the conus medullaris?
typically S4, S5, and Co1
283
In which vertebral foramen will the conus medullaris typically be observed?
L1
284
What is the name given to the nerve roots below L1?
cauda equina
285
What is the continuation of the pia mater below the conus medullaris called?
filum terminale internum
286
What is the location and name given to the area where all meninges first converge at the caudal part of the vertebral column?
typically S2, the dural cul de sac
287
Neural tissue has been identified in what part of the filum terminale?
proximal part of the filum terminale internum
288
What is the fate of the neural tissue identified along the filum terminale internum?
it joins the peripheral nerve roots of spinal nerves as high as L3 and as low as S4
289
What does the neural tissue associated with the filum terminale externum appear to innervate?
lower limbs and the external anal sphincter
290
The last arterial vasa corona creates what feature on angiogram?
cruciate anastomosis
291
What is the name given to the condensation of meninges below S2?
filum terminale externum
292
What is the name given to the caudal attachment of the meninges?
coccygeal medullary vestige
293
What is the name given to the condition in which the conus medullaris is located below L1 and the filum terminale is thickened?
tethered cord syndrome
294
What is the relationship between scoliosis and tethered cord syndrome?
it is suggested that the column will change normal curvature to mitigate damage to the spinal cord caused by a tethered cord
295
At the intervertebral foramen, what is the relationship between spinal nerve number and vertebral number along the cervical spine?
in the cervical spine, spinal nerves exit above the segment they are numbered after (C8 nerve is the exception to this rule). C3 nerve exits above C3 or between C2/C3
296
At the intervertebral foramen, what is the relationship between spinal nerve number and vertebral number along the thoracic and lumbar spine and the sacrum?
in the thoracic and lumbar spine and for the sacrum, spinal nerves exit below the segment they are numbered after (Co1 nerve is the exception to this rule). T6 nerve exits below T6 or between T6/T7
297
What is the relationship between rib number and vertebral numbers at the costocentral joint?
rib number always equates to the same vertebral number at the costocentral joint
rib 3 articulates with T3 segment and also with the T2 segment; Only ribs 1, 11, and 12 typically joint with a single segment
298
What is the relationship between spinal nerve number, rib number, and vertebral number in a thoracic intervertebral foramen?
the spinal nerve number relates to the upper segment in the vertebral couple
The rib number relates to the lower segment number in the vertebral couple
i.e. T3 nerve exits the intervertebral foramen formed by T3/T4 and rib 4 joints with this vertebral couple
299
What is the osseous modification observed to the front of the anterior arch of C1?
the anterior tubercle
300
What is observed on the back of the anterior arch of C1?
the fovea dentis
301
What attaches behind the anterior arch of C1?
the lateral mass
302
What is the name of the rounded elevation on the medial aspect of the lateral mass of C1?
tubercle for the transverse atlantal ligament
303
What is identified in the midline at the back of the posterior arch of C1?
the posterior tubercle
304
What superior surface modification of the posterior arch of C1 is present near the lateral mass?
groove/sulcus for the vertebral artery
305
What superior surface modification is present near the posterior tubercle of the posterior arch of C1?
the arcuate rim
306
What attaches to the arcuate rim of the posterior arch of atlas and to the superior articular process of the lateral mass of atlas?
a complete ponticulus posticus
307
Based on the amount of bony union between the superior articular process and the arcuate rim of C1 what structure will form?
an incomplete or complete ponticulus posticus
308
What names are given to the opening formed by the ponticulus posticus?
arcuate foramen or retroarticular canal
309
What is observed on the undersurface of the posterior arch of C1?
the inferior vertebral notch
310
What is the name given to the anterior part of the transverse process of C1?
the costal element
311
What is the name given to the posterior part of the transverse process of C1?
the true transverse process
312
What is the distal most part of the transverse process of C1?
the posterior tubercle
313
What unique vertebral body modification is characteristic of C2?
the dens or odontoid process
314
What surfaces are present on the odontoid process of C2?
facet for fovea dentis, groove for transverse atlantal ligament, attachment sites for the alar ligaments, attachment site for the apical - dental ligament
315
What feature is identified on the anterior surface of the odontoid process of C2?
facet for fovea dentis
316
What feature is identified on the posterior surface of the odontoid process of C2?
groove for the transverse atlantal ligament
317
What feature is identified on the superolateral margins of the odontoid process of C2?
attachment sites for the alar ligaments
318
What feature is identified on the tip of the odontoid process of C2?
attachment site for the apical-dental ligament
319
What feature is identified on the anterior surface of the vertebral body of C2?
the longus colli muscle attachment
320
What feature is identified on the anterior surface of the inferior epiphyseal rim of C2?
the anterior lip
321
What feature is identified on the posterior surface of the inferior epiphyseal rim of C2?
the posterior lip
322
What features are present at the lateral margins of the inferior epiphyseal rim of C2?
right and left lateral grooves
323
What features arise from the posterolateral margins of the vertebral body of C2?
the pedicles
324
What lies on the upper surface of the pedicle of C2?
the superior articular process
325
What is the location of the superior vertebral notch of C2?
on the lamina-pedicle junction
326
What feature is identified on the lower surface of the pedicle of C2?
the inferior vertebral notch or inferior vertebral incisure
327
What osseous parts of the typical cervical transverse process are present at C2?
costal element, posterior tubercle and true transverse process
328
What is the name given to the anterior part of the transverse process of C2?
the costal element
329
What is the name given to the posterior part of the transverse process of C2?
the true transverse process
330
What is the distal most part of the transverse process of C2?
the posterior tubercle
331
What is the characteristic appearance of the C2 spinous process in humans?
It is bifid
332
What are the modifications of the superior epiphyseal rim of a typical cervical?
anterior groove, posterior groove, right and left uncinate processes
333
What are the names of the lateral modifications of the superior epiphyseal rim of a typical cervical?
uncinate process, unciform process, uncovertebral process, uncus or lateral lip
334
What are the modifications of the inferior epiphyseal rim of a typical cervical?
anterior lip, posterior lip, right and left lateral grooves
335
What attaches to the posterolateral margin and in the center of a typical cervical vertebral body?
the pedicle
336
What bony feature is attached to the posterior end of the pedicle?
the articular pillar
337
What is the name of the surface feature observed between the ends of the articular pillar?
the groove/sulcus for the dorsal ramus of a cervical spinal nerve
338
What bone feature is attached to the posterior part of the articular pillar?
the lamina
339
What ligament attaches to the lamina of a typical cervical?
ligamentum flavum
340
Ossification of the ligamentum flavum at the attachment site on the lamina will result in what feature?
para-articular processes
341
List, in order, the osseous parts of the typical cervical vertebra transverse process beginning at the vertebral body
costal element, anterior tubercle, costotransverse bar, posterior tubercle, true transverse process
342
What is the name given to the superior margin of the costotransverse bar?
sulcus for the ventral primary ramus of a cervical spinal nerve
343
What is the name given to the modification of the anterior tubercle of the C6 transverse process?
the carotid tubercle
344
What is the usual condition for the caucasian typical cervical spinous process?
they are bifid
345
What is the usual condition for the african-american typical cervical spinous process?
they are non bifid
346
What surfaces are present on the superior epiphyseal rim of the vertebral body of C7?
anterior groove, posterior groove, right and left uncinate processes
347
What is the appearance of inferior surface of the vertebral body of C7?
typically flat, lacking anterior and posterior lips characteristic of the typical cervicals
348
What are the features of the spinous process of C7?
long, horizontal, non-bifid
349
What are the osseous parts of the transverse process of C7?
costal element, anterior tubercle, costotransverse bar, posterior tubercle, true transverse process
350
What is the outline of the vertebral body of T1 from superior view?
somewhat rectangular with curved anterior margins
351
What is the appearance of the superior surface of the vertebral body of T1?
it is somewhat cup-shaped with elevations at the posterior and lateral margin
352
What is the appearance of the inferior surface of the vertebral body of T1?
typically flat, lacking anterior and posterior lips characteristic of the cervicals
353
What surfaces are present on the upper and lower margins of the T1 vertebral body?
the right and left superior costal facet and right and left inferior costal demi-facet
354
What is the direction of the transverse process at T1?
the transverse process projects nearly straight out laterally
355
What is present on the transverse tubercle of T1?
the transverse costal facet
356
What is the angulation of the spinous process of T1?
the undersurface of the T1 spinous process will be nearly horizontal
357
What feature will allow discrimination between T2-T4 and T5-T8 segmental groups?
the vertebral body, transverse process, articular process and spinous process
358
On cranial view, what is the outline of the vertebral body for the T2-T4 group?
the vertebral body will have bilaterally convex sides
359
On cranial view, what is the outline of the vertebral body for the T5-T8 group?
the left side of the vertebral body will be flattened, the right side convex
360
What is the name given to the left side appearance of the vertebral body of T5-T8?
the aortic impression
361
What part of the vertebral body is most influenced by the aorta at T5-T8?
the left side superior and inferior epiphyseal rims
362
What synovial joint surfaces are present on the vertebral body of a typical thoracic?
the right and left superior and the right and left inferior costal demi-facets
363
What is the appearance and position of the lamina in a typical thoracic?
the lamina is short, broad and thick and lies next to the spinous process
364
What is present at the tip of the transverse process of a typical thoracic?
the transverse tubercle
365
What is the distance between the transverse tubercles in the typical thoracic region?
from T2 each transverse diameter becomes shorter as the transverse processes angle more posterior
366
What is present on the transverse tubercle of a typical thoracic?
the transverse costal facet
367
How do the transverse diameters of the articular processes compare in the T2-T4 region?
the superior articular process transverse diameter is greater than the inferior articular process transverse diameter for a given segment
368
How do the transverse diameters of the articular processes compare in the T5-T8 region?
the superior articular process transverse diameter is the same as or equal to the inferior articular process transverse diameter for a given segment
369
What name is given to the region between the superior and inferior articular processes in the typical thoracics?
the pars interarticularis
370
What is the pars interarticularis?
the region between the superior and inferior articular processes
371
What part of a vertebra arises laterally from the pars interarticularis?
the transverse process
372
What part of a vertebra arises medially from the pars interarticularis?
the lamina
373
What is the orientation of the spinous process of a typical thoracic?
they slant backward and downward
374
What is the angulation of the spinous process of T2-T4?
the undersurface of T2-T4 spinous processes will angle up to forty degrees from the horizontal plane
375
What is the angulation of the spinous process of T5-T8?
the undersurface of T5-T8 spinous process will angle up to sixty degrees from the horizontal plane
376
What vertebrae will have a spinous process angulation of up to forty degrees?
T2-T4
377
Which vertebrae will have a spinous process angulation of up to sixty degrees?
T5-T8
378
What synovial joint surfaces are present on the vertebral body of T9?
right and left superior costal demi-facets; right and left inferior costal demi-facets
379
Which synovial joint surfaces may be absent from the vertebral body of T9?
inferior costal demi-facets
380
What is present on the transverse tubercle of T9?
the transverse costal facet
381
What is the orientation of the spinous process of T9?
posterior and slightly inferior, it will shorten and become more horizontal
382
What synovial joint surface surfaces are present on the vertebral body of T10?
the right and left superior costal facet
383
Which synovial joint surface is absent from the vertebral of T10?
inferior costal demi-facets
384
What is the position and direction of the pedicle from the vertebral body at T10?
the pedicle arises from the upper third of the vertebral body and projects posterior and slightly laterally
385
What feature is very commonly observed on the lamina of T10?
para-articular processes
386
What part of the transverse process may be absent on T10?
the transverse costal facet
387
What is the orientation of the spinous process of T10?
posterior and slightly inferior, it will shorten and become more horizontal
388
What synovial joint surfaces are present on the vertebral body of T11?
the right and left superior costal facet
389
Which synovial joint surface is absent from the vertebral body of T11?
inferior costal demi-facets
390
What part of the transverse process is absent on T11?
the transverse costal facet
391
What is the orientation of the spinous process of T11?
posterior and horizontal along the undersurface
392
What synovial joint surfaces are present on the vertebral body of T12?
the right and left superior costal facet
393
Which synovial joint surface is absent from the vertebral body of T12?
inferior costal demi-facets
394
What is present at the transverse process region of T12?
three tubercles of variable size
395
Which tubercle on T12 represents the transverse process?
the lateral tubercle
396
Which tubercle on T12 represents the mammillary process of the lumbars?
the superior tubercle
397
Which tubercle on T12 represents the accessory process of the lumbars?
the inferior tubercle
398
What joint surface of the typical thoracic transverse process is absent on T12?
the transverse costal facet
399
What is the curvature of the inferior articular facets of T12?
they are significantly convex
400
What is the orientation of the spinous process of T12?
posterior and horizontal
401
What is the generic shape of the typical lumbar vertebral body from the cranial view?
reniform or kidney-shaped
402
What is the name of the elevation near the origin of the lumbar transverse process?
accessory process
403
What is the name of the lamina-pedicle junction of typical lumbar vertebrae?
pars interarticularis
404
What is the name given to the projection on the lumbar superior articular process?
mammillary process
405
What characteristic of the L1-L4 pedicle may be used to differentiate it from the L5 segment? Be specific and complete as the difference(s) on a segment from each group
On cranial view, the lateral surface of the pedicle is apparent on a L1-L4 segment. At L5 the transverse process originates from the vertebral body, pedicle and lamina-pedicle region.
406
What is the typical number of segments that unite to form the adult sacrum?
5 segments
407
What forms the median sacral crest?
fused spinous processes and their spinous tubercles
408
What forms the intermediate sacral crest?
fused articular processes and their facets
409
What features may be identified along the intermediate sacral crest?
the mammillary process of S1 and the sacral cornu of S5
410
What does the sacral cornu represent?
the inferior articular process and facet of S5
411
What is the name of the inferior opening of the sacral spinal canal?
the sacral hiatus
412
What forms the lateral sacral crest?
the fused transverse processes and transverse tubercles from S1 to S5
413
What is the sacral tuberosity?
the enlarged transverse tubercle of S2
414
What feature is associated with the transverse tubercle of S5?
the inferior and lateral (inferolateral) sacral angle
415
From the anterior view, the intervertebral discs of sacrum will be replaced by what feature?
transverse ridges
416
What feature is identified on the lateral surface of S1-S3?
auricular surface
417
What feature does the anterior surface of the superior epiphyseal rim of S1 form?
the sacral promontory
418
What is the name given to the region of bone extending laterally from the S1 vertebral body looking from the base view?
sacral ala
419
What forms the sacral ala?
the costal element and true transverse process
420
What is the typical number of segments that unite to form the adult coccyx?
4 segments
421
What bony features are present on the coccyx?
all segments are represented by a "vertebral body"; in addition, Co1 has a coccygeal cornu and transverse process
422
What is the homolog of the superior articular process and facet on Co1?
coccygeal cornu
423
What feature is present at the top of the manubrium sterni?
jugular notch (suprasternal notch)
424
What is the name given to the articular site at the superolateral margin of the manubrium sterni?
clavicular notch
425
What names are given to the articular sites for the joint with the first and second rib?
costal notch 1 for the first rib costal cartilage; costal notch 2 for the second rib costal cartilage
426
How many sternabrae for the corpus sterni?
4 sternabrae
427
What surface feature on the corpus sterni identifies the location of the old synchondroses?
transverse lines
428
What articular sites for the costal cartilage of ribs will be identified on the corpus sterni?
costal notches II-VII
429
What names are given to the articular surfaces on the head of a typical rib based on location?
superior articular surface/facet and inferior articular surface/facet
430
What feature of the head of a rib separates the superior from the inferior articular surface/facet?
the interarticular crest
431
What features may be identified on the neck of a typical rib?
the crest of the rib
432
Which features of the tubercle of a typical rib is closer to the head of the rib?
the articular surface of the tubercle
433
Which feature of the tubercle of a typical rib is closer to the shaft of the rib?
the non-articular surface of the tubercle
434
What features may be identified on the body (corpus or shaft) of a typical rib?
the costal angle and costal groove
435
What is present on the head of the first rib?
a single articular surface
436
Is there a crest on the neck of the first rib?
not a well developed one like on the typical rib
437
Which groove on the body (corpus or shaft) of the first rib is close to the vertebral end?
the groove for the subclavian artery and the first thoracic nerve
438
Which groove on the body (corpus or shaft) of the first rib is close to the sternal end?
the groove for the subclavian artery
439
Is either the costal angle or costal groove apparent on the first rib?
neither the costal angle nor the costal groove are apparent on the first rib
440
What features may be identified on the head of rib 2?
two articular surfaces and the interarticular crest
441
What feature may be identified on the neck of rib 2?
the crest of the rib
442
What features may be identified on the body (corpus or shaft) of rib 2?
the tuberosity for the serratus anterior, the costal angle and the costal groove
443
What distinguishes the vertebral end of rib 11 from typical ribs?
the single articular surface, absence of a well developed crest on the neck and the tubercle may be absent or if present, consists only of a non-articular surface
444
What features may be present on the body (corpus or shaft) of the 11th rib?
the costal angle and costal groove are under-developed
445
What helps to distinguish the vertebral end of the twelfth rib from other ribs?
the head has a single articular surface, the crest of the neck is poorly developed, the tubercle is absent
446
What is the condition of the body (corpus or shaft) of rib 12?
the costal angle and costal groove are absent and it is the shortest of all ribs
447
What is the term used to identify the study of joints?
arthrology
448
What term is used to identify the study of ligaments?
syndesmology
449
What are the three histological classifications of joints?
fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial fluid
450
What were the three latin classifications of joints based on movement potential?
synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis
451
What are the characteristics of the (amphiarthrosis) synchondrosis?
they are primary cartilage joints, temporary in longevity, composed of hyaline cartilage and form between ossification centers within a cartilage template
452
Which classification of cartilage joint is secondary, permanent, composed of fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage) and occurs between bones formed by endochondral ossification?
(amphiarthrosis) symphysis
453
What examples of synovial plane (diarthrosis arthrodial) joints occur along the vertebral column?
most zygapophyses of the vertebral column
454
What is an example of synovial pivot (diarthrosis trochoid) joints along the vertebral column?
median atlanto-axial joint
455
What examples of synovial saddle (diarthrosis sellar) joint is identified along the spine?
the joint of Luschka of typical cervicals is a modified sellar joint
456
What example of the diarthrosis condylar joint is identified along the spine?
the atlanto-occipital joint may be classified as a diarthrosis condylar joint
457
What example of the diarthrosis ellipsoidal joint is identified along the spine?
the atlanto-occipital joint may be classified as a diarthrosis ellipsoidal joint
