Lecture Exam 2nd Half A&P I Flashcards
(207 cards)
1
Q
Meningeal branch:
A
reenters the vertebral canal and innervates the meninges, vertebrae, and spinal ligaments w/ sensory and motor fibers.
2
Q
insula lobe of cerebrum
A
-small mass of cortex deep to lateral sulcus. taste, pain, visceral sensation, consciousness, emotinoal responses and empathy, and cardiovascular homeostasis
3
Q
Blood capillaries throughout the brain tissue and Capillaries of the choroid plexus
A
Blood capillaries throughout the brain tissue- bad stuff doesn’t go through there because of blood brain barrier anything leaving the blood pass through astrocytes contacting the capillaries of both and force endothelial cells to make tight junctions in ependymal cells sealing off gaps. endothelial cells can exclude or not exclude, highly permeable to water, glucose, lipid-soluble substances (o2, CO2, alcohol, caffeeine, nicotine, and anesthetics) slightly permeable to (sodium, potassium, chloride, waste products urea and creatinine) not permeable to (antibiotics, cancer drugs) COV organs barrier absent blood to neurons to monitor blood glucose, pH, osmolarity etc.
Capillaries of the choroid plexus- entrance place for the system. similar system
4
Q
synapse
A
contains syanptic vesicles full of neurotransmitter
5
Q
Ventricles
A
blood capillary-choroid plexus four internal chamber in brain two lateral (arc in cerebral hemisphere w/ pore connected to third in medial space between corpus collosum from there cerebral aqueduct fourth ventrical triangular chmber inferior end between pons and cerebellum
6
Q
visceral sensory division
A
(carry message from viscera of thoracic and abdominal caities, heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder)
7
Q
Emotion
A
: emotional feelings and memories are interactions between prefrontal cortex (seat of judgement content and understand of emotions only), (amygdala input from sensory systems mediate emotional responses to hypothalamus and lower brainstem for somatic, feeling themselves and emotional memroy from deeper regions of these two only) hypotahalmus to other motor or prefontal cortex controlling emotions based on behaivor learned associations w/ stimuli and award or punishment
8
Q
proximal branches
A
-spinal nerve from two points of attachment to spinal cord. split off first ton of branches that come off. plexi, cervical, thoracic, lumbar bunches of nerves located.
9
Q
hearing conduction to parts of brain
A
Sensory fibers sent to pons beginning at hair cells on ear. (vestibula nerve)
–Synapse with second-order neurons that ascend to the nearby superior olivary nucleus
Other cochlear nucleus fibers ascend to the inferior colliculi of the midbrain help w/ locating origina of sound, processing fluctuation and pitch, mediating startle response and head turning
–Third-order neurons begin in the inferior colliculi and lead to the thalamus (functions in conscious perception of sound)
–Fourth-order neurons from the thalamus to primary auditory cortex at superior margin of temporal lobee
10
Q
what does CNS not have that PNS does
A
CNS have no neurilemma or endoneurium.
11
Q
Nervous system
A
is very complex- provides innervation to muscles, organs, done by three specific steps sense organs receive changes in environment to brain and spinal cord. CNS processes messages sent and relates to past experiences on what needs to happens and response initiating a command gland or muscle cells
is the foundation of our conscious experience, personality, and behavior
Neurobiology combines the behavioral and life sciences
12
Q
arachnoid mater
A
arachnoid matter-inner layer five or six layers of squamous to cubdoial cells w/ looser array of cells and collagenous and elastic fibers looks spider webs off nerves sticks to dura mater and seperated from pia mater by fibers w/in space (cerebral spinal fluid).
13
Q
basic anatomy of a spinal cord
A
brain from foramen magnum of skull to first lumbar vertebra. long tubes using spinal nerves come out of back 31 pairs of nerves named for level of vertebral column where spinal nerves emerge w/ enlargement of cord for corresponding nerves to limbs and girdles. communicating w/ rest of body. yellow strings spinal cords innervating various parts of body. cord-like organs w/ fibers or axons bound together bound by connective tissue. mixed nerves afferent (sensory) efferent (motor) fibers. carry from sensory to CNS.
14
Q
pia mater
A
continuous w/ the spinal cord fuses w/ dura mater down in coccygeal region and helps form ligament. delicate transparent membrane w/ one or two layers of squamous to cuboidal cells and delicate collagenous and elastic fibers. extensions of pia called denticulate ligamens extend through arachnoid to dura, anchoring cord limiting side-to-side
15
Q
–Antagonistic effect
A
: oppose each other. parasympathetic heart reate down sympatethic heart rate increase. Affects on same effector cells, or innervates different effector cells that control it
16
Q
reticular formation functions
A
Somatic motor control Cardiovascular control Pain modulation Sleep and consciousness Habituation
17
Q
rhythm of sleep controlled by
A
complex interaction between cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, and reticular formation
18
Q
postsynaptic potential
A
-EPSP dont change whether fires just rate of firing by stimulating or inhibiting production of more action potential as it is based on postsynaptic potentials produced by neurotransmitter ex. excitatory or inhibitory. receiving chemical potential. cell have to be excited to threshold, excitatory potential results from sodium flowin into cell. message inhibitory postsynaptic potential becomes more negative than at rest less likely to fire by Cl- enter or K+ leaving. different neurotransmitters cause different things depending on cell bind to depending on type of receptors released or accepting it.
19
Q
Language centers of left hemisphere-
A
wernicke area (posterior to lateral sulcus left hemisphere permit recognition of spoken written language) and brocca (left hemisphere inferior to prefrontal cortex larynx, tongue, cheek and mix when one prepares to speak)
brocca apahsia- difficulty in choosing words and using them, slow speech, approximate correct word not actual
wernicke area lesion- speaks normally and excessively uses jargon and invented words making little sense unable to identify written words or pictures
20
Q
visceral motor divison
A
(autonomic nervous system, ANS) carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. no voluntary control, visceral reflexes
21
Q
There are two different classes of receptors for
A
acetylcholine (secreted by preganglioinc fibers in both dividions and postganlionic fibers of parasympathetic) two classes
muscurinic and nicotinic
22
Q
touch and sensory
A
(afferent toward CNS ) neurons- specialized to detect stimuli of light, heat, pressure, and chemicals transmitting info to CNS. begin in body organs end in CNS.
23
Q
limbic system
A
important center of emotion and learning. ring of cortex on medial side of hemisphere encircling corpus collosum and thalamus. cingulate gyrus (arches over corpus collosum front and parietal lobes hypocampus in medial and temporal and amygdala rostral to hippocampus. through complex loops of fiber tracts allowing circular patterns of feedback among nuclei and cortical neurons bilaterally paired.
24
Q
frontal lobe of cerebrum
A
frontal lighter blue voluntary motor functions, abstract though, foresight, declarative, memory, motivation, planning mood and emotion, social judgement, agression extends to wavy vertical groove central sulcus),
25
control w/out dual innervation
- in some places only one type of fiber aka sympathetic in blood vessels therefore w/ constant stimulation it dilates w/out it constricts
26
spatial summation
from several different synapses add up to threshold at axon w/ each possibly weak but together pass axon hillock others allow action potiential post-synaptic neuron to fire. all the little bumps at thresholds line.
27
muscle spindles
stretch receptors embedded in skeletal muscles body’s proprioceptors sense organs specialized to monitor position and movement of body parts informing brain of muscle length and movement allowing brain to send motor commands back to muscles controling tone, posture, coordinated movement, and corrective reflexes.
28
autonomic effects on grandular secretion
indirect of action on blood vessels. filtrate of blood then modified by gland cells increasing blood flow through gland increasing secretion and vice versa.
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spinal cord function
conduction (info up and down cord connecting diff. levels of trunk w/ eachother and brain), neural integration (spinal neurons receive into from many sources, integrate it, and execute appropritate output ex. peeing), locomotion (repetitive coordinated contractions of several muscle groups central patern generators for alternating movements), reflexes (posture, motor coordination, and protective responses to pain and injury.
30
excitatory signals for adregernic
adrenergic synapses (norepinpherine-secondary messengery systems cAMP transmembrane protein w/ g protein slower to respond but does amplify w/ enzymes single molecule can produce multiple or vast numbers in cell versus the others.).
31
reciprocal inhibition
- reflex that prevents muscles from working against eachother by inhibiting antagonist so stimulate interneuons inhibiting antagonist muscle when agonist is excited allowing the movment to occur.
32
terminal
terminal arborization w/ axon terminal end- extensive complex of fine branches forming synapse. (autonomic neruons varicosisites alone whole length syanptic vesciles and secretes neurotransmitter)
33
Anterior ramus:
In thoracic region, it gives rise to intercostal nerve, In other regions, anterior rami form plexuses. thoracic forms intercostal nerve along rib in skin and intercostal muscles w/ motor internal and external obliques
34
stages of sleep
stage 1- drowsy eyes relaxed, drifting, about to fall asleep easily awaken
stage 2- light sleep not as easily awoken
stage 3- moderate to deep sleep 20 minutes after 1 muscles relax vital signs fall.
stage 3- very low muscle very relaxed muscles lowest difficult to awaken
35
Hypothalamus: function in autonomic control
major visceral motor control center.
36
what is the node of ranvier
myelin sheath gap, myelin-covered segments from each node to next internodes.
37
physical memory
Physical basis of memory is a pathway through the brain called a memory trace (engram)
Along this pathway, new synapses were created or existing synapses modified to make transmission easier w/ experience added, taken away, or modified, to make easier or harder
38
sympathetic lasts longer. why?
parasympathetic secrete ACh quickly broken down, for sympathetic some reabsorbed, some diffuses, and bloodstream exerting for several minutes before broken down. many released as neurotransmitters modulate both of those.
39
nerves involved in taste
Facial nerve collects sensory information from taste buds over anterior two-thirds of tongue
•Glossopharyngeal nerve from posterior one-third of tongue
•Vagus nerve from taste buds of palate, pharynx, and epiglottis
•All fibers reach solitary nucleus in medulla oblongata
40
cerebral cortex
neural integration carried out in gray matter of cerebrum in cortex, basal nuclei, and limbic system. stellate cells- spheroidal somas w/ short axons and crazy dendrites sensory input and processing on local level. pyramidal cells (tall and conical- apex toward brain surface thick dendrate many branches small knobby dendritic spines horizontal dendrites into white matter output neruons of cerebrum only part that leaves connecting to rest. 90% is neocortex (six layered vary in thickness, cellular compositon, synaptic connections, size and destination of axon
41
general fibers-
innervate widespread organs siuch as muscles, skin glands, viscera, and blood vessel.
42
general senses
distributued over entire body, (touch, pressure, stretch, movment, heat, cold, and pain reach by cranial (trigeminal nerves) or spinothalamic tract from rest of body. head cranial nerves, body diffferent tracks to brain. ascending tracts. thalamus- contralateral side (ooposite) post central gyrus of parietal lobe. somastetic association area caudal to gyrus cognitive sense actual stimuli what sensory input being sent. superior or medial parts of grus face go to lateral parts of gyrus.
43
motor (efferent) neurons
(efferent away from CNS) neurons- send signals predominantly to muscle and gland cells, effects. lead to muscle cells
44
senses
Special Senses- draw each pathway to understand
senses important to body w/out hallucination.
blood pressure body temperature sense organs initate homeostatic important to survival
45
cessation of the nerve signal occurs how?
Synapses must turn off stimulation to keep postsynaptic neuron from firing indefinitely. Presynaptic cell stops releasing neurotransmitter for 1 ms then clear rest diffuses into EC fluid.
monoamide &acetylcholine broken down into fragments by enzymes. transport proteins reuptake breakdown products. astrocytes in CNS absorb stray neurotransmitters and return them to presynaptic neurons, satellite cells in PNS
Neurotransmitter only stays bound to its receptor for about 1 msand then is cleared
46
Suprachiasmaticnucleus (SCN)
—important hypothalamic area located above optic chasm eyes instead of visual cortex uses to synchronize multipl ebody rhythms w/ day and not body temperature, urine production, hormone secretion
Hypothalamus produces orexins—neuropeptides that stimulate wakefulness
47
Distal Branches:
Beyond the intervertebral formane, the nerve divides into distal branches:
anterior rams,
posterior ramus
meningeal branch
48
signal conduction in nerve fibers
speed of nerve signal travels is diameter of fiber and presence or absence of myelin along surface of fiber, w/ large fibers more surface area and conduct more rapidly
49
occipital lobe of cerebrum
(vision center). caudal to parieto-occiptial culcus (white matter projection (higher and lwoer brain and spinal cord centers aka communication),
50
Posterior ramus:
innervates the muscles and joints in that region of the spine and the skin of the back
51
–Cooperative effects
: two divisions act on different effectors to produce a unified overall effect. salivary salus secretion parasympathetic increae salivary mucous cell secretion help eachother out w/ target cells idfferent dont innervate equally or with equal influence
52
Dual Innervation-
most viscera receive nerve fibers from both parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions: both dont intervate equally ex. in iris sympathetic fibers innervate pupillary dilator cells and parasympathetic innervate constrictor cells
53
glia
protect neurons help function bind neurons together and provide supportive framework for nervous tissue covering where not in synaptic contact specialized points for signal tranmission. six kinds (oligodendrocytes- myelin sheath in CNS, ependymal-produce cerebrospinal fluid w/ cilia to circulate it, microglia-macrophage, astrocytes-most abundant gray matter, schwann cells-PNS myelin sheath and regeneration, satellite cells-ganglia PNS insulation for chemical environment)
54
sensory division
(afferent division-toward body)- carries signals from various receptors (sense organs and simple sensory nerve endings to CNS. informs CNS of stimuli w/in and around body.
in the sensory division it is further characterized by the visceral sensory division and somatic sensory division
55
Two points of entry into brain
Blood capillaries throughout the brain tissue
| Capillaries of the choroid plexus-
56
temporal lobe of cerebrum
hearing, deep lateral sulcus w/ hearing, smell, language, emotion, memory of language, memory consolidation, verbal, visual and auditory memories.
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parasympathetic division
: is relatively selective in stimulation of target organ. craniosacral divison calming stuff. arising from brain and sacral region of spinal cord cranial and sacral nerves origin from midbrain pons and medulla. preganlionic to in or near target organs super long preganlionic fiebrs and really short ganglionic fibers super close to organs.
There is only a little neural divergence (less than divergence exhibited by sympathetic division)
58
ascending tracts-
red0 fibers in a given tract have similar destinations, function and origin. carry sensation information up.
59
Cauda equina:
formed from roots arising from L2 to Co1
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parietal lobe of cerebrum
(start central sulcus parieto-occipital sulcus taste, somatic sensation (touch, heat and pain) visual processing understand world, spatial perception and body orientiation, language processing and numerical awareness
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cognition on certain areas of brain
Cognition: range of mental processes by which we acquire and use knowledge. sensory perception, thought, reasonoing, judgement, memory. over cerebral cortex association areas, and 75% of brain tissue parietal (perceive stimuli awareness of objects or themselves), temporal (understand stimuli and recognize identify and name familar objects), frontal (plan and execute behaviors think about world)
62
Brain barrier system—
regulates what substances can get from bloodstream into tissue fluid of the brain. protection area. antibodies, macrophages, bacterial toxins not allowed in.
63
Cerebellum-
hindbrain, motor ability, linguistic, emotional. three major parts and stalks ocnnecting brain stem and cerebellum. connected by bridge vermis, w/ slender transverse parallel fold folia by shallow sulci w/ surface cortex of gray matter and deeper white matter.granule cells most abundant neuron w/ purkinje cells dendrites into plane single file parallel deep nuclei on output neurons to brainstem. connected to brainstem by cerebellar penduncles pinacles inferior (medulla oblongata), middle (pons), superior (midbrain) thick bundles of nerve fibers signals to and from. spinal input enter bellum by inferior penduncles, rest of brain via middle, cerebellar output through supeior. functions: touch w/ textures, spatial perception, timekeeper, prediction of movement, and hearing pitches, language difficulty planning and scheduling tasks
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neural coding
way in which nervous system converts information to meaninful pattern of action potentials. labeled line code- each nerve fiber to brain leads from receptor specifically recognizes particular stimulus typpe and only that w/ each fiber labeled and recognize by only that simulus.
65
neuropeptides
Neuropeptides are chains of 2 to 40 amino acids- function as neuro-modulators help something to happen
Beta-endorphin and substance P
Act at lower concentrations than other neurotransmitters
Longer lasting effects
Stored in axon terminal as larger secretory granules (called dense-core vesicles)
Some function as hormones or neuromodulators
Some also released from digestive tract
Gut–brain peptides cause food cravings
66
What happens when you reach the end of the cell?
When reach end secrete neurotransmitter stimulates new wave of electrical activity in next cell across synapse.
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nerve
bundle of nerve fibers wrapped in fibrous connective tissue emerging fro CNS through foramina and carry signal to organs.
excitability- all are excitable and respond to environmental changes, conductive- respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that are quickly conducted to other cells at distant locations, secretion- signal reaches end of nerve fiber secrete a neurotransmitter crossing gap and stimualting next cell.
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afferent
receptor to posterior end of spinal cord to brain.
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definition of circuit and the 4 types
neural pool determined by neural circuit. diverging (one nerve fiber/pool branches and synpases w/ post synaptic cells one neuron to 100s of others ex. brain stimulate all muscles), converging (many different nerve fibers coming together to fewer intermediate or output pathways ex. brain taking in SPO2, stretch to adjust respiratory rate), reverberating (neuron stimulate eachother in linear sequences, later cells stimualte first starting all over again like a loop ex. diaphragm and intercostal muscles of breathing), parallel (each chain has different number of synapses reconverging on one or few output neurons. differ in synaptic delay arrive at different times w/ contiued firing. no feedback loops, once all fired output ceases. different loops w/in the loops)
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rami of the spinal nerves-
first branches off rootlets posterior and anterior root ganglia becomes spinal nerve have communicating w/ vertical chain and that is sympathetic chain ganglia. splits again posterior and anterior ramus.
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Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)—a motor nervous system that controls glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. realtes to viscera. viscera thoracic and abdominal categories all of your guts and body walls, cutaneous blood vessels, sweat glands and piloerector muscles.
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sleep
temporary state of unconsciousness from which one can awaken when stimulated
Sleep occurs in cycles called circadian rhythms.
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action potential
often called a spike,as it happens so fast more dramatic change produced by voltage-gated ion channels in the plasma membrane. w/ high enough density of voltage-gated channels, if excitatory potential spreads to trigger zone is and is strong enough when it arrives, it can open these channels and generate an action potential. rapid up-and-down shift in voltage. Only a thin layer of the cytoplasm next to the cell membrane is affected. In reality, very few ions are involved
all or none law: once threshold is met neuron fires at maximum voltage or doesn’t fire at all.
nondecrimental- action potential at end of nerve fiber is just as strong as first one in trigger zone
irreversible and always goes to depletion w/out losing it cannot be stopped
74
Drugs and the nervous System
- sympathomimetics (enhance sympathetic activity increaseing norepinepherine release dilating bronchioles constricting nasal vessels) sympatholitics (block norepinephrine release interfere w/ its effects on heart and blood vessels). competes w/ adneosine and gets there first and blocks it. parasympathomimetics (enhances parasympathetic inhibit ACh or blockes recentpors dilating pupils.)
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Autonomic Output Pathways-
contrast to somatic motor pathways (motor neuron issues myelinated axon all the way to the skeletal muscle straight thorugh to muscle telling it what to do) signal must travel across two nerve fibershave to have synapse doesnt go straight through target neuron w/ a step in betwen. way for stuff to travel and root.
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tongue senses
salty, sweet, glumommy (meaty taste of amino acids), sour, and bitter (affected by aroma, temperature, texture by lingual nerve and something on tongue.
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Flexor and extensor reflex arc
flexor ipsilateralreflex arc, (stimulus and response on same side) whereas crossed extension reflex uses a contralateral reflex arc (input and output are on opposite sides)
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parasympathetic
parasympathetic division- reduced energy expenditure, bodily maintenance, eating. autonomic tone having both of these active depending on bodies need at the time w/ parasymapthetic tone minatains smooth muscle keeping lowe hear rate
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sympathetic chain ganglia-
longitudinal series of ganglia that lie adjacent to both sides of vertebral column from cervical to coccygeal level connected by longitudinal nerve cord. all nerve fibers for sympathtiec division from thoracic and lumbar region. T1-L2.
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Sensation:
primary sensory cortex sites of parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, where sensory input is first received and one becomes conscious of stimulus. visual congivnivive sense of visual, motor and integrate into perception of surroundings.
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thalamus
(gateway to cerebral cortex taste, smell, hearing, equilbrium, visiona nd general sense. from cerebellum to cerebrum feedback loops between cerebral cortex and basal nuclei (deep motor centers) w/ memory and emotional functions of limbic system w/ ovoid mass superior end of brainstem beneath cerebral hemisphere lateral ventricles and third ventricle),
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Anterior (ventral) root
is motor output out of spinal cord
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hearing-
outer ear response to any audible vibrating air molecules w/ equilibrium a part of it motion, body orientation, and balance, processed in inner ear maze fluid filled sensory cells. vibrating object musch on air molecules hitting ear drum causing to vibrate conducting sound.
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two major subdivisions of nervous system
CNS and PNS
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third order neurons in vision
Third-order neurons arise here and form the optic radiation of fibers in the white matter of the cerebrum. *occipital lobe or some midbrain (hypothalamus and thalamus) visual project pathway 3 of fibers of nerve… association tracts for vision in parietal lobe, temporal lobes processing data sent location and motion, color, shape, and visual memories
86
myelenated fibers
conduct signals w/ saltatory conduction jumping from node to node of nodes of ranvier . NA+ enters diffuses short distance electrical field repels others moves slightly no one moves far but together travels down faster than individual ion. weaker w/ distance w/ voltaged gated channels myelanted area dont have this making conduction of signals much faster speeding up conduction. excessive positive and negative on either side cause attraction through membrane making unmoving or sluggish “storage charges). myelin speeds up signal conduction: wrapping tightly around axon, increases resistance to leakage of sodium from cell further seperating inner positive from outer positive well to decrease sluggish less attracted. signal strength starts to fade close nodes increase them, between node when reaches next one strong enough to open w/ little action potential occuring at the next node. skeletal muscles and sensory signals for vision and balance. regeneration of nerves 12.3?
87
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors:
| Contrasting effects on organs: Two fundamental reasons:
–Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers secrete different neurotransmitters (norepinephrine and acetylcholine)
–The receptors on target cells vary. preganlionic neurons in all divisions w/in axons secrete cholinergic fibers and receptors
Target cells respond to the same neurotransmitter differently depending on the type of receptor they have for it
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descending tracts
green. carry motor signals down brainstem and spinal cord upper originate in cerebral cortex terminating on motor neurons in brain stem or spinal cord. w/ axon of lower neurons going to muscle or target organ.
89
Reticular Formation
: found w/in the space between white fiber tracts. medulla oblongata.takes signals in and sends them out
Loose web of gray matter that runs vertically through all levels of the brainstem.
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motor division of PNS
(efferent) carries signals from CNS to gland and muscle cell that carry out body’s responses (effectors). can carry it to visceral (which then seperates to the parasympathetic and sympathetic (carry messages from PMS to CNS) or somatic motor division,motor efferent CNS to effectors glands and muscle.
91
Polysynaptic reflex arc—
pathway in which signals travel over many synapses on their way to the muscle by the time aware of it then consciously taking note of it
92
examples of neuromodulators
```
Nitric oxide (NO) is a simple neuromodulator- postsynaptic activates secondary messenger pathways relaxing smooth muscles
Neuropeptides are chains of amino acids that can act as neuromodulators: encaphalen and endorphins inhibit pain in central nervous system
```
93
nicotinic
(autonomic ganlions preganglionic stimulate postganlionic, sympathetic adrenal medulla, neuromusclar junction skeletal muscles always excitiatory)
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sympathetic nerve routes-
other postganglionic leave by way of sympathetic nerves heart, lung, esophagus, and thoracic blood vessels. Form carotid plexuses of neck and tissue fibers to head including sweat, salivary, nasal glands, blood vessels, dilators of irus.
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adrenal glands
- Paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands located on superior poles of kidneys. cortex is outer layer of kidney (secrete steroid hormones through adrenal glands) medulla (sympatheitc ganglion w/postganclionic neruons w/out dendrites or axons penetrate through cortex secrete mixture of hormones into bloodstream providing sympathetic function
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smell
bunch of cells olfactory cilia lining mucus traps smell related to olfactory nerve more sensory than taste moluecles in ear w/ aroma in ear bind to receptors on hair of olfactory nerve diffusing thourh mcuus or along hairs and get sent in triggering action potential traveling to brain telling what odor is. olfactory adapt quickly dont syanpase right away w/ olfactory bulb. act on noceceptors (trigeminal nerve too specific
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Six to eight rootlets
emerge from anterior surface converge to enter posterior horn of cord
leave spinal cord and converge to form anterior root spinal nerve proper.
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neurosome
soma or cell body control center of neuron. centrally located nucleus, cytoplasm: mitochondria, lysosomes, gofi, inclusions (glycogen granules, lipid droplets, melaning, lipofuscin pigment (lsosomes degrade organelles accumulate w/ age) , extensive rough ER and cytoskeleton. cytoskeleton dense mesh of microtubules and neurofibrils (bundles of actin filaments) compartmentalize rough ER into chromato-phillic substance dark-staining regions.
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Intersegmental reflex
—one in which the input and output occur at different levels (segments) of the spinal cord. abdominal muscles contract so that you can keep one leg up and other one balanced,
Pain in foot causes contraction of abdominal muscles
100
meningitis
inflammation of meninges particularly pia and arachnoid, bacterial or viral, high fever, stiff neck, drowsiness, severe headache, coma after and cause death depending on how bad infection is. take cerebrospinal fluid picing up bacteria lumbar puncture to diagnose meningitis.
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presynaptic inhibition
process in which one presynaptic neuron suppresses another one (opposite of facilitation). reduces or halts unwanted transmission at synapse, inhibitting neuron releases gaba inhibittory response doesnt open calcium
102
pia mater
pia mater-continuous w/ the spinal cord fuses w/ dura mater down in coccygeal region and helps form ligament.
103
post-tetanic potentiaion
short term: (jogging memory w/ little stimulation calcium high). few hours or upcoming event, Ca2_ level stays elecated so long that another signal well after tetanic stimulation releases large burst of neurotransmitter. if heavily used slight jog.
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skull cavities
cranial cavity (brain case), orbits (eye sockets), nasal cavity, oral (buccal) cavity, middle- and inner-ear cavities, and paranasal sinuses
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Posterior (dorsal) root
is sensory input to spinal cord
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special about dura mater méninge
dura mater no intervening epidural space only attached around foramen magnum, sella turcica, crista galli, and sutures (periosteal layer thick layer on outside tissue paper and inner meningeal layers continuous w/ vertebral canal forming dural sheath can be seperated by dural sinuses collecting blood sagittal and transverse sinus). dura infold seperations of brain limiting brain movmeents w/in cranium: falx cerebri- seperates cerebrum longitudinal fissure crescent shaped between left and right; temtorium cerebelli, roof over cranial fossa seperate cerebrum and cerebellum, falx cerebelli (seperates two half of cerebellum)
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hypothalamus
(third ventricle floor and walls, into optic chiams to mammilary bodies (relay signals from limb system to thalamus), pitutiary attached at stalk (optic chiasm and mamilary bodies) control center of autonomic nervous system and endocrine system, homeostatic of body systems funciton of nuclei hormone secretion, autonomic effects, thermoregulation, food and water intake, sleep and circadian rhythms, memory, emotional behavior, and sexual response)
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CNS
brain and spinal cord, enclosed and protected by cranium and vertebral column
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skull
most complex part of skeleton
| 22 bones joined together by sutures
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interneuons
entirely w/ CNS, receive signals from other neurons carrying out integrative funciton of nervous system; process, store, and retrieve info, making decision to determine how body respond to stimuli between adn inttercoonect sensory and motor
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parts of a neurone
neurosome, dendrite, axon hillock, terminal, synapse
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Central Control of Autonomic function:
```
ANS regulated by several levels of CNS.
midbrain pons, and medulla oblongata
Hypothalamus:
spinal cord
Cerebral cortex
```
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branches of Spinal Nerve:
dorsal or posterior root anterior to posterior come out and combina. spinal nerve comes out anterior and posterior ramus first branching parts after spinal nerve anterior or posterior. anterior and communicating rami sympathetic coming up and down bulging on nerves
114
nervous system carries out in three basic tasks
Sense organs receive information about changes in the body and external environment, and transmit coded messages to the brain and spinal cords
CNS processes this information,relates it to past experiences, and determines appropriate response
CNS issues commands to muscles and gland cells to carry out such a response
115
integrating center
in reflex area interneurons w/ more more complex but w/ longer delay synaptic contact between neurons in gray matter of cord or brain stem processing on whether or not a signal for movement
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immediate
ability to hold something in your thoughts for a few seconds ex. reading feel for flow of events and being in present echoes in mind for few seconds for reverberating circuits. ex. reading sentence reverberating circuits
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PNS
peripheral nervous system: all the rest w/ nerves and ganglie
then connects to the sensory and motor division
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efferent
to muscle. effector
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Crossed extension reflex
contraction of extensor muscles in limb opposite of the one that is withdrawn. extends and stiffens other limb Maintaining balance. afferent nerve fibers cross from stimulated side to contralateral synapse w/ interneurons excite or inhibit to muscles.
opposite side so balance isnt compromised, when inhibitted by alcohol doesnt control as easily
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quantitative neural coding
depending on potential of stimulus w/ different neurons having different threshold of excitation, weak stimulus excites sensitive neurons w/ lowest threshold and only high stimulus can excite high threshold neurons as well as all the more sensitive ones allowing for judgement of stimulus strength by which neurons and how many are firing. more frequently fires depending on strength as well.
121
un-myelanted fibers
continuous conduction: voltage gated channel along entire length when action potential at trigger zone , Na+ enters and diffuses for short distance, enters axon diffusing into adjacent region causeing voltage gated channels opening results in new action potnetnial to excite membrane distal chain reaction till reaching the end of the axon.
nerve signal- wave of falling dominos, not one travels to end pushing to end chain of action potentials one way because of refractory. .for not super important aka stomach acid or dilating pupil. CNS and PNS unmyelanted in Schwann cells- neurilemma
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Cerebral cortex function in autonomic control
has an influence: anger increase BP, fear increase HR, anxiety inhibits sexual, food Increase rumbling, sexual blood flow to geneital
Powerful emotions influence the ANS because of the connections between our limbic system and the hypothalamus
Nuclei for primitive functions—hunger, thirst, sex, thermoregulation, emotions
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ganglion
knotlike swelling in nerve where cell bodies of peripheral neurons are concentrated. . cluster of neurosomas in CNS, enveloped in epineurium continuous w nerve bundles of nerve fibers into and out of ganglion.
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Nature of Reflexes-
quick and involuntary reactions to stimulation. require stimulation- not spontaeous actions responses to sensory input. quick- few if any interneurons used minimum synaptic delay, and not a lot of delay, involuntary-w/out intent hard to supress different per individual. stereotyped- occur in same way every single time but response varies w/ location of each person.
Reflexes include grandualar secreiton all three type of muscle (somatic reflexes muscle, skin, and tendon)
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presynaptic neuron
(sender) have synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitter or electrical from cell to cell. synapse w/ dendrite, soma, or axon of postsynaptic neuron w/ multiple synapses.
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Pons-
broad anterior bulge rostral to medulla. similar continuations in medulla w/ white matter (transverse connecting cerebellum and up and down). 5-8 cranial nerves begin or end in pons. function: hearing, equilibrium, test, such and pain in face, motor: eye movement, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, urination, saliva and tears reticular formation w/ nuclei: related to sleep, respiration, posture
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meninges of spinal cord
form supportive framework for nervous tissue, extensions perivascular feet contact blood capillaries and stimulate them to form a tight, protective seal, monitor neuron activity, stimulate dilation and constriction of blood vessels, regulate blood flow in brain tissue, blood glucose to lactate, influence synaptic signaling between neuron, regulate compisiiton of tissue fluid absorb and break down neurotransmitters, scar tissue on neurons.
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neuromodulators
chemicals secreted by neurons that have long term effects on groups of neurons. alters rate of neurotransmitters synthesis, release, recycle, or breakdown changing the post-synaptic sensitivity
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skull foramina
holes that allow passage for nerves and blood vessels.
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cerebrum
most conssits of white matter, glia and myelinated nerve fibers form tracts (projection, commisural, associaiton) function: sensory, perception, memory thought, judgement, and voluntary motor functions. lobes
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white matter
surrounds axons and gray matter, bundles of axons that course up and down cord between different levels of CNS. arranged in columns or funiculi: posterior (dorsal), lateral, and anterior (ventral) column consists of tracts or fasciculi providing support columns or canaliculi ventral tracks canaliculi w/ tracts. glial cells. bright pearly white appearnace w/ myelin bundles of axons carry signals from one level of CNS to another. glial cells
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two different neurotransmitters used by autonomic nervous system
acetylcholine
| norepinephrine
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midbrain pons, and medulla oblongata function in autonomic control
nuclei for cardiac, salvation, sweating, gastrointestinal secretion, bladder control, swallowing, and pupillary changes from coulomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus
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function of medulla oblongata
sensory: hearing, equilibrium touch, pressure, temp, taste, pain. Motor: chewing, salivation, swallowing, gagging, vomiting, respiration, speech, coughing, sneezing, sweating, heart and gastro control and head neck and shoulder moveemtns cervical nerves begin and end include 8 (partly), 9, 10, and 12. wavy inferior olivary nucleus (relay center for signals from everywhere to cerebellum) reticular formation (nuclei thorugh medulla pons in midbrain in medulla is cardiac center (heartbeat), vasomotor center (BP and flow), respiratory center (rhythm and depth)
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special fibers-
innervate localized organs in head (eyes, ears, olfactory, taste receptors, muscles of chewing swalloing and facial expressions
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midbrain
connects hindbrain to forebrain, containing cerebral aqueduct, medial lemniscus and reticular formation w/ cranial nerve 3 and 4. posterior to cerebral aqueduct is rooflike part tectum aka roof of midbrain penucles stalks on anterior side helping it anchor to pons and cerebrum. four major bulges corpora quadrigemina, superior colliculi (upper pair- four nub things visual attention, tracking movements, reflexes), inferior colliculi lower pair (signals from inner ear and thaalmus to other parts of brain). cerebral peduncle (anterior to cerebral aqueduct two stalks anchor cerebrum to brainstem: tegmentum( blood vessel portion connection from cerebellum for motor contorl), substantia nigra (melanin, inhbitory to thalamus and basal nuclei for unwanted body movements), and cerebral crus (connect cerebrum to pons carry corticospinal nerve tracts.
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Each spinal nerve is formed from two roots
(proximal branches)
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gray matter
dull color w/ little myelin. somas, dendrites, and proximal parts of axons of neurons, synaptic contact between neurons and site of neural integration. (butterfly or H-shaped in cross sections, two posterior dorsal horns and these coincide w/ posterior dorsal of spinal cord sensory along with two thicker anterior motor (ventral horns) large neurosomas of motor neurons whose axons lead out to skeletal muscles, thicker extend toward anterolateral surfaces. gray commissure- right and left side connected by median bridge w/ central w/ ependymal cells
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somatic motor division
carries signals to skeletal muscles, voluntary contractions and some voluntary somatic reflexes
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patellar reflex
tapping patellar ligament streches quadriceps femoris muscle stimulates numerous spindles and send to spinal cord one synapse between afferent adn efferent promt response exciting and contracting. one synapse between two. diseases problem w/in nerve and signals. tendon organs right where red meets white in response to excessive tension muscles from extracting too strongly before tearing or pulling muscle from bone. stop you from pushing to limit and having it be injured or torn.
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memory information management entails:
Learning: acquiring new information in hippocampus of limbic system organizing sensory and cognitive experiences while happening then plays it to cerebral cortex
Memory: information storage and retrieval. procedural memory (tying ones shoes) hypocampus (limbic system) cerebrellum (motor skills) and emigdala (emotional memory)
Forgetting: eliminating trivial information; as important as remembering. retrogade amneis (forget what one new) unable to store new information (anterograde amnesia)
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long-term
(LTM) may last a lifetime and can hold more information than short term memory.
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cerebral lateralization-
difference in function of cerebral hemisphere. left categorical and right representational coordinated w/ handedness (categorical one). left handed is categorical (spoken and written language and sequential and analytical resoning braking into fragments analyzing linear) right (representational hemisphere (perceive as more integrated imagination and insight, muscle adn artistic, patterns and spatial realtionships, understanding speech)
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Spinal nerve routes
-some postganglioncic fibers exit via gra ramus returns to spinal nerve and rest of way to target organs. along ventral route thorugh white and out to whatever traget affector going to. sweat glands, piloerector, blood vessels skeletal muscle
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Posterior (dorsal) root ganglion
—contains the neurosomas of sensory neurons carrying signals to the spinal cord
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myelin sheath-
spiral layer of insulation around nerve fiber, oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS.
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Enteric Nervous system
- of digestive tract
–Does not arise from the brainstem or spinal cord (no CNS components)
–Innervates smooth muscle and glands. digestive tracts CNS components innervates smooth muscle and gland 1000 million neurons own reflex digestive enzymes and axons both systems work together to help. regulating motility of esophagus, stomach, and intestines, secretion of digestive enzymes and acid.
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sympathetic
sympathetic division- preparing for some kind of activity, excericse, arousal, trauama, comeption, anger. inhibits digestive and urinary. increasing heart rate, alertness, blood pressure to cardiac and skeleteal muscles, pulmonary airflow, blood glucose,
reacting ex. increase heartbeat, increase respiratory, inhibits digestioncalming effect, slowing heart rate, breathing, increase digestive, urinary
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List Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves and their functions
•Oculomotornerve (III)- pupils focusing lens narrowing pupils
•Facial nerve (VII)- ters, nasal and salivary gland.
•Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), perotid salivary gland earlobe
•Vagus nerve (X)- long fibers, viscera and proximal half of color. 90% of fibers w/ cardiac, pulmonary, and esophogeal plexus
pelvic splancnic nerve- hyposgastric plexus leading to colon, rectu, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs
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neural pool
neurons function in large groups, each of which consists of thousands of interneurons concerned with a particular body function. information at neural pool through input neuron (s) branch repeatedly and synapse w/ other in pool w/ spatial summation. one or more input neurons branch to different targets forming multiple synapses between post-synaptic cells, spatial summation making fire because multiple signal and occuring. input neurons dispatch cause post-synaptic nerves fire fewer and less powerful synapses so working together to fire.
discharge zone- so many synaptic contacts to get the next to fire spatial summation, facilitated- presyanptic lacks enough but collaborte w/ others will allow to fire.
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parts of brain involved in taste
cranial nerves involved w/ taste: glossopharyngeal, vagus, facial ends up in medulla oblongata. hypothalamus and amygdala vomiting, taste, thaalamus to cerebrum for conscious sense of taste to orbital frontal cortex from nose and eyes forming impressions of flavor and palatability of food
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neural integration
the ability to process, store, and recall information and use it to make decisions: Chemical synapses allow for decision making brain cells well connected for compelx integration. pyramidal cells-cerebral cortex to read and comprehend 40000 context chemical transmission synaptic delay makes it less than if no synapse.
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Nerve fibers leave the sympathetic chain by three routes
spinal , sympathetic,and splanchnicnerves
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epithalamus
(tiny it has pineal gland (endocrine), hebenula (relay from limbic system to midbrain). encloses third ventricle.
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•Olfactory projection pathways:
–Olfactory cells synapse in olfactory bulb on dendrites of mitral and tufted cells (sometimes an inhibitory response so sdont synapse there or later) dendrites meet and everything gets sent to primary destination is the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe
–Tufted and mitral cell axons from olfactory tracts
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summation
adding up postsynaptic potentials and responding to net effects in trigger zones action potneitals difference between excitatory.
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dendrite
somas give rise to thick processes of dendrites. primary site for receiving signals from other neurons, more dendrites it has more it can receive and incorporate into decision making, precise pathways for reception and processing of neural information
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neurotransmitter defintion
neurotransmitters-molecules released when the synaptic nodule changes phsyiology causing reaction. bubbles form release neurotransmitters to pos-synaptic nerve and related messengers help w/ release of signals,
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presynaptic facilitation
-when one neuron enhances the effect of another. w/ one neuron acting alone not able but collaboration of multiple or releaseing Ca2+ to increase inflow makes it easier to induce firing
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nerve and brain innervation for sight
Bipolar cells of retina are first-order neurons
Retinal ganglion cells are second-order neurons whose axons form optic nerve
Optic tracts pass laterally around the hypothalamus with most of their axons ending in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. half of fibers cross over optic nerve and splits two nerves combine to form cross right cerebral hemisphere see objects in left vice versa. optic tract laterally around hypothalamus end in thalamus.
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parasympathetic
parasympathetic division- reduced energy expenditure, bodily maintenance, eating. autonomic tone having both of these active depending on bodies need at the time w/ parasymapthetic tone minatains smooth muscle keeping lowe hear rate background of what is going away from
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parts of cerebrum
```
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipial
insula
```
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axon hillock
all neurons only have one or none.axon nerve fiber originates. cylindrical (axon collateral near soma) w/ branching only at end, specialized for rapid conduction of nerve signals. axoplasm- cytoplasm, axolemma-membrane
(mutipolar- one axon multiple dndrites most common brain and spinal cord, bipolar- one axon one dendrite olfactory cells of nose, neuron of retina, and sensory neuron of ear, unipolar- single process from stoma to spinal cord touch and pain, anaxonic- multiple dendrite no axon locally through dendrite no action potnetial in brain, retina, and adrenal medulla?) axonal transport???
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postganglionic
postganglionic fibers leave ganglion by gray communicating ramus returns to spinal nerve, longer and go rest of the way to the target neuron. tell her the pathway comes out in paravertebral w/ comunicating ramen whtie and gray. preganglionic traveling via white. post leave by way of the gray w/ bridge back to spinal curve.
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synaptic potentiation
the process of making transmission easier by learning something (muscle memory)
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implicit
long term: memory of things that come reflexively or unconsciously: emotional memories (fear) or procedural (retention of motor skills)
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•Secondary destinations of smell:
hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex identify odors and integrate taste evokes memories, emotions, and visceral reaction as well odors can change under different conditions
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neurotransmitters 6 main kinds
100 neurotransmitters. acetylcholine (ANS, brain, excites skeletal, inhibits cardiac, +/- smooth and gland) , monoamines (from amino acids epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, ATP, serotonin), amino acids (glycine, glutamate, aspartate brain stem and spinal cord), purines (ATP), gases (NO&CO), neuropeptide (endorphins)
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electrical neuron
gap junctions joing adjacent cells from one to the next binding neurotransmitter making it fast. disadvantage is cant integrate information and make decisions chemical integrate w/ neurosransmitters and make deciisnios. neuroglia, cardiac, single-unit muscle electrical synapse ions diffuse from one to next faster
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describe the general excitatory cholinergic response
nerve signal axon terminal opens voltage-gated CA2+ channel they then enter and trigger exocytosis of synaptic vesicles releasing ACh. acetylcholine opens synaptic knob voltage gated channels w/ sodium and potassium to diffuse through open channels post-synaptic potential at the triggor zone), ACh does opposite and is inhibitory in cardiac muscles
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local potentials
light heat and mechanical stimualant. changes in potential to a nearby or similar cell. Incoming NA+ diffuses for short distances along inside of plasma membrane, wave of excitation from point of stimulation. Differences: 1) Graded local potentials, which vary in voltage according to strength of stimulus aka weaker or NA+ enters cell more than it does. 2) decremental weaker as spread from point of origin w/ Na+ leaking back out of cell K+ then reverses effect of Na+ inflow not long-distance effect. 3) reversible if stimulation ceases, cation diffusion returns membrane voltage to resting potential. 4) excitatory (acetylcholine depolarizes) or inhibitory (glycine hyperpolarizes more negative).
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spinal nerve
0 mixed nerve carrying sensory signals to spinal cord by posterior root and ganglion, motor signals out of distant parts of body by anterior root
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preganglionic
vertebral have pregangilaions fibers that are smaller and travel to ganglion by white communicating ramus,
unmyelinated
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splanching nerve routes-
spinal nerves T5 and T12 sympathetic ganglia w/out synapsing, second set of collateral where they then synapse w/ postganlionic.
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gray matter (lateral horn)
Posterior horn receives sensory nerve fibers from spinal nerves, synapse w/ networks of interneuons in horn w/ T1-L1 neurons of sympathetic neural system. interneurons and motor neurons abundant in cervical and lumbar enlargements, axons out of cord by way of anterior root w/ somatic efferent fibers, because of lots of neurons related to motor control and sensation in upper and lower limbs.
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taste
- understand different parts and bumps pickig up different signals to help w/ taste 4000 or gestation, chemical stimulants initating pathways bumps on tongue pick up chemical stimulants molecules have to be dissolved and flood taste areas.
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diencephalon consists of
thalamus
hypothalamus and
epithalamus
key role in motor control cerebellum and cebrum feedback loops from nuclei memory and emotional functions of limbic system:
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visceral reflexes
- unconscious, automatic and stereotyped to stimulation w/ visceral receptors and effectors causing some type of reaction and effect including somatic reflexes in muscles. visceral effectors dont depend on ANS, just for adjusting changing. 1) receptors (nerve endings detect stretch, temperature blood chemicals or any other stimuli) . 2) afferent neuron to 3) interneurons CNS integrating center,4) efferent away from CNS to 5) efferctor . integrating center interneuonrs of CNS between afferent and efferent
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synaptic plasticity
the ability of synapses to change
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paranasal sinuses
air pockets w/in bon lighten anterior portion of the skull and are chambers adding resonance to the voice. frontal (above nose), sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary (cheeks).
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inhibitory signals
gaba-ergic (employs aminobuteric acid triggers gaba into cleft similar as cholinergic except binds to Cl- entering cell making bpotential more negative post-synaptic neuron more inhibitted)
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temporal summation
single synapse generates EPSPs so quickly that each generated before other one fades and adds up to threshold so triggered. can be single synapse
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synaptic facilitation
short term: (tetanic stimulation) rapid arrival of repetitive signals at a synapse. (rapid arrival of Ca2+ to axon terminal can trigger fire if pump doesnt pump out enough before next action potential making more likely to fire.
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describe root of pre and post ganglionic neurons and their features
(preganglionic fiber myelinated leads from some in brainstem or spinal cord to autonomic gnalion and & synpases w/ postganglionic unmyelinated fiber do not end by synapsing w/ specific target cell but w/ chain of varicostieies diffusely release neurotransmitter into tissues simultaneously.)
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Flexor (withdrawal) reflex.
the quick contraction of flexor muscles resulting in the withdrawal of a limb from an injurious stimulus
sensory neurons activate when touching something unwanted many interneurons motor neurons send messages on same side to flexors and they become excited so they contract quickly flex to pull limb away, Triggers contraction of the flexors and relaxation of the extensors in that limb.
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Long-term Potentiation:
thought to effect dendritic spines: motor cells modifying synapse but can create a different route. thought patterns changed original there but certain can create different and changing pathway shape new branching of axons or dendrite molecular changes and potentiation. receptors on dendritic spines of neurons allowing calcium to enter cell acting as secondary messenger to synthesize proteins for remodeling causing a different pathways
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Three functional classes of neurons
touch and sensory, interneurons motor (skeletal muscle)
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spinal cord function in autonomic control
excretion and integrated at spinal cord control tehse functions at sphincters smooth muscle is built into autonomic or backup system. urination, defecation, erection, and ejaciulation
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integrative functions of the brain
Integrative functions of the Brain: higher brain functions-sleep, memory, cognition, emotion, sensation, motor control, and language. cerebral cortex, cerebrum (focus on but different actions for a lot of parts)
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dura mater
outside layer dura mater tough outer layer covering w/ dense irregular connective tissue around spinal cord and brain. Not touching bone because of epidural space (blood vessels, adipose, loose connective tissue)
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norepinepherin and its receptors
eall symapthetic postganglionic secreted by adrenergic fibers and receptors. Alpha excitatory contractions. piloerection, constricts dermal, but inhbits intestinal motility. and b inhibitorry relaxes and dilates bronchioles but excitatory fpr cardiac. adrenergic receptors: different second messages versus beta if alpha inhibit, beta excite.
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somatic sensory divsiion
(carries signals from receptors in skin, muscles, bones, and joints) touch, heat, cold, stretch, pressure, pain
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muscurinic.
Cardiac, smooth muscle, gland cells have these receptors. Excites intestininal smooth muscle by binding one type and inhibits cardiac muscle by binding to a different type working through secondary messenger system
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post-synaptic cell
have receptors and ligand-regulated ion channels. occur between two different neurons. nerve signal go no further when reaches end of axon synapsing w/ another. first is presynaptic second is post-synaptic.
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bdominal aortic plexus
crazy array of strins and threats around aorta. three major collateral gnalia (major ganglia and plexus areas in abdomen names not importat) postganlionic fibers hook hup and head to organs. branches onto 1-20 cells one can lead to multiple organs
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synaptic vesicle activity
w/ chemical neurotransmitters to make certain things happen w/ vesicles docked and reserve vesicles farther from membrane. post-synpatic neuron.
some excitatory and some inhibitory neurotransmitters can bind to receptor to do either excite or inhibit dpending upon when two meet. ligand-gated channels.
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long term
(LTM) may last a lifetime and can hold more information than short term memory.
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cerebrospinal fluid
cerebrospinal fluid- clear, colorless, fills ventricles and canals of CNS bathing it. formed in subarachnoid space, ependymal lining of ventricles, choroid plexuses. Formed by filtration of blood through capillaries, ependymal modify sodium chloride than plasma less potassium, calcium, glucose, and little protein. functions for filtration, buoyancy (neither floats nor sinks making it lighter), protection (brain from striking cranium when jolted), chemical stability (rinses metabolic wastes from tissue regulating it). flows through and around central nervous system by its own pressure, heartbeat, and cilia. all through different pores (apertures) down to spinal chord and reabsorbed in the arachnoid granulattion and soaked back up w/ blood in sinus.
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explicit
long term: or declarative-events and facts into words, numbers, name, date, must think.
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anatomy of medulla
begining at foramen magnum of skull end at transverse groove pons. w/ pair of pyramids ridges (descending fibers corticospinal tracts fill ridges contralateral) on anterior surface (baseball bats) seperated by anterior median fissure continuous w/ spinal cord. lateral to each olives and posterior gracile and cuneate fasciculli two pairs of ridges on medula. All nerve fiber brain to spinal cord pass through , first order end in gracile and cuneate nuclei w/ second order medial lemniscus, third to cerebral cortex.
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short-term
lasts from seconds to a few hours. can be forgotten if stop reciting it, distracted, or remember something new. working memory remember long enough to carry out action, limited w/ few bits of info taking actions phone number you looked up in circuits of facilitated synapses reactivated by new stimulation
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in cases of emergency
Sympathetic division prioritizes blood vessels to skeletal muscles and heart in times of emergency. erector pili, routes of blood flow. sumpathetic vasal tone keeps vessels in partial constriction w/ median rate of flow. increase in firing vasoconstriction decrease helps because change flow of blood from one organ to another when necessary.
Blood vessels to skin vasoconstrictto minimize bleeding if injury occurs during emergency
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Neurons have a high demand for ATP
therefore, oxygen and glucose, so a constant supply of blood is critical w/out it irreparable damage from 10 seconds to 4 minutes.
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refractory period
During an action potential and for a few milliseconds after, it is difficult or impossible to stimulate that region of a neuron to fire again.
Two sections: absolute refractory phase- no stimulate of any strength triggers a new action potential (as long as sodium gates open) and relative refractory phase- possible to trigger new action potential but only with unusually strong stimulus (K+ still open, strong to oppose K+ outflow. only small portion of neuron total other parts can be stimulated.
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Basal Nuclei
masses of cerebral gray matter buried deep in white matter, lateral to thalamus, involved in motor control. *corpus strateum-striped appearance motor control entire area broken down further (caudia nucleus puteum)
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processing of visual images
sent location and motion, color, shape, and visual memories
Some processing begins in retina
Primary visual cortex is connected by association tracts to visual association areas in parietal and temporal lobes which process retinal data from occipital lobes
oculomotor- levator palpebrae, superioris muscle, superior rectus muscle, medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique
adbucens- lateral rectus
trocchlear- superior oblique muscle
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tendon/stretch reflex
when muscle stretched fights back contracts, increasing tone, and feels stiffer than unstretched maintain equilibrium and posture making this more fluid less jerky brain but spinal if suddenmyotatic reflex body fighting back w/ equilibrium and posture by brain or can be spinal if testing reflexes. tension between muscles and flexors making movements smooth.
