Lectures

Question 1

What features do synaptic number and strength underlie?

Answer 1

Processing sensory information
Motor circuits
Memory formation
Synaptic plasticity

Question 2

According to what features can neurones be grouped?

Answer 2

Shape
Electrical activity 
Gene expression profile
Neurotransmitter 
Connectivity

Question 3

Cells that wrap myelin sheath around neuron

Answer 3

Oligodendrocytes

Question 4

Cells that act like the immune cells of the brain

Answer 4

Microglia

Question 5

Maintain neural energy balance, buffer and provide nutrition

Answer 5

Astrocytes

Question 6

Line ventricles of the brain and secrete CSF

Answer 6

Epindymal cells

Question 7

Glue. Provide tropic support, modulate electrical output of neurones and protect them from external factors

Answer 7

Glia

Question 8

What are the components of a tripartite synapse?

Answer 8

Presynaptic terminal, post synaptic spine and astrocyte process (glia)

Question 9

What is the role of astrocytes in the tripartite synapse?

Answer 9

Neurotransmitter recycling, release of gliotransmitters eg d serine or ATP and to ensheath

Question 10

Which cells carry out synaptic pruning and how?

Answer 10

Microglia

They remodel dendritic spines, changing the cell input

Question 11

What process to robo and slit control?

Answer 11

Midline crossing

Question 12

What ligand binds robo?

Answer 12

Slit ligand (chemorepellant)

Question 13

What direction do axons expressing high robo grow and why?

Answer 13

Grow longitudinally as there repelled by slit

Question 14

Which direction do axons expressing low robo grow and why?

Answer 14

They cross the midline as they are attracted to it

Question 15

What happens after axons cross the midline?

Answer 15

Robo is upregulated and they continue to grow longitudinally on the contralateral side

Question 16

What morphagen allows development of the dorso ventral axis?

Answer 16

Sonic hedgehog

Question 17

What structure secretes sonic hedgehog?

Answer 17

The notochord

Question 18

What does a reduced production of Shh by the notochord lead to?

Answer 18

More dorsal interneurons form further from the notochord

Question 19

What determines the formation of the anterio posterior axis?

Answer 19

Hox gene expression

Question 20

What is the brainstem said to be divided into (physical segmentation)?

Answer 20

Rhombomeres

Question 21

What controls peripheral axon projection?

Answer 21

Neurophilin receptors and semaphorin ligands

Question 22

What is repelled by semaphorin ligands?

Answer 22

Dorsal root ganglia

Question 23

What binds NRP1?

Answer 23

SEMA 3A

Question 24

What binds NRP2?

Answer 24

SEMA 3F

Question 25

What ligand binds EPh receptors?

Answer 25

Ephrin

Question 26

What two things are expressed in complementary gradients in the retina and tectum, showing complimentary gradients of guidance cues?

Answer 26

EPh receptors and ephrin ligands

Question 27

Where are axons from the temporal retina directed?

Answer 27

Anterior tectum

Question 28

Where are axons from the nasal retina directed?

Answer 28

Posterior tectum

Question 29

What is the complementary gradients of guidance cues between the retina and tectum an example of?

Answer 29

Topographic mapping within the nervous system

Question 30

What are the advantages of phase contrast microscopy?

Answer 30

Only requires low illumination No labelling required Cheap

Question 31

What are the disadvantages of phase contrast microscopy?

Answer 31

Can't automate image analysis | Can only distinguish between structures with high contrast

Question 32

What are the advantages of fluorescent wide field microscopy?

Answer 32

Increased discrimination and temporal resolution when compared to phase contrast

Question 33

What are the disadvantages of wide field fluorescent microscopy?

Answer 33

High illumination required. | Limited depth of information

Question 34

What are the advantages of confocal fluorescent microscopy?

Answer 34

3D image Even higher discrimination than phase contrast and wide field fluorescent microscopy Allows image analysis Can be done in living cell

Question 35

What are the disadvantages of confocal fluorescent microscopy?

Answer 35

Expensive | High illumination and long acquisition time required

Question 36

How can mouse models be used in neuroscience?

Answer 36

Their cortex forms layers like ours, meaning that higher brain function can be studied

Question 37

How can frogs be used as animal models in neuroscience?

Answer 37

Can be used to study robo/ slit guidance cues. | This is a good model to show the brain stem and early projections

Question 38

How can flies be used as animal models in neuroscience?

Answer 38

Drosophila have many common neurotransmitters with humans, and can be used to study how the nervous system is wired up and modelling of human diseases.

Question 39

How can chick embryos be used as animal models in neuroscience?

Answer 39

You don't require a home office license to work with chick embryos, as it is considered ethical. Minimal husbandry costs and good for modelling early neuronal development, as this is highly conserved. Also good for studying visual system for the same reason, and that they have large eyes

Question 40

What is an agonist?

Answer 40

A drug that binds the receptor keeping it in the R* state/ has a higher affinity for R* state

Question 41

What is an inverse agonist?

Answer 41

Has a higher affinity for the R state than the R* state

Question 42

What is an antagonist?

Answer 42

Doesn't directly have higher/ lower affinity for the R/R* state, but binds to the receptor in competition with the agonist/ inverse agonist, reducing its effect

Question 43

What type of drug allows full receptor saturation?

Answer 43

Full agonist

Question 44

What type of drug binds to the receptor but won't cause full saturation?

Answer 44

Partial agonist

Question 45

What type of drug competes with the agonist to prevent binding but has no downstream effect?

Answer 45

Neutral antagonist

Question 46

What type of drug has a higher affinity for the R state, reducing the number of receptors in the active fraction?

Answer 46

Inverse agonist

Question 47

What type of binds do irreversible antagonists form?

Answer 47

Covalent

Question 48

By what mechanism does an irreversible antagonist prevent agonist binding?

Answer 48

Causes a conformational change. It is capable of lowering receptor efficacy, as the antagonist remains bound until the receptor is internalised and recycled

Question 49

How well the drug binds the receptor

Answer 49

Affinity

Question 50

How well the drug, once bound to the receptor elicits a response

Answer 50

Efficacy

Question 51

A measure of the amount of drug required to elicit a response of a give intensity

Answer 51

Potency

Question 52

What is an allosteric modulator?

Answer 52

Drug that binds alternative (allosteric) site & alters signalling

Question 53

What is the role of a positive allosteric modulator?

Answer 53

Binds to the allosteric site and enhances signalling by increasing binding or efficacy of the orthosteric agonist

Question 54

What is the role of a negative allosteric modulator?

Answer 54

Binds to the allosteric site reducing signalling by decreasing agonist binding or efficacy at the orthosteric site

Question 55

What is the role of a neutral allosteric modulator?

Answer 55

Bids the allosteric site but leads to unaltered signalling

Question 56

How do allosteric modulators modulate drug efficacy?

Answer 56

They can alter conformation of the receptor

Question 57

How do allosteric modulators alter the drug affinity for the receptor?

Answer 57

They make binding more or less difficult

Question 58

Define a neurotransmitter

Answer 58

Biochemical that mediates fast acting direct communication between 2 neurones - pre and post synaptic

Question 59

Define neuromodulator

Answer 59

Biochemical that modulates activity of neurones and neuronal networks by changing the ability of neurones to respond to neurotransmitters. Can act at sites remote from where they're synthesised

Question 60

True or false some neurotransmitters can act as neuromodulators

Answer 60

True

Question 61

Name some examples of amino acid neurotransmitters

Answer 61

Glutamate (+) Aspartate (+) GABA (-) Glycine (+/-)

Question 62

What type of receptors are NMDA, AMPA and kainate receptors?

Answer 62

Ionotropic glutamate receptors

Question 63

GABAa, nicotinic AChR and 5HT3 are examples of what type of receptor?

Answer 63

Ligand gated ion channels (ionotropic)

Question 64

Which two receptors are allosterically modulated by an Mg2+ block?

Answer 64

NMDA and GABAa

Question 65

How are group 1, 2 and 3 GPCRs coupled?

Answer 65

Group 1 = Gq Group 2 = Gi/Go Group 3 = Gi/Go

Question 66

What are the members of the group 1 GPCRS

Answer 66

mGlu1 and mGlu5

Question 67

What are the members of Group 2 GPCRS

Answer 67

mGlu2 and mGlu3

Question 68

What are the members of group 3 GPCRS

Answer 68

mGlu4 and mGlu6-8

Question 69

What is the subunit composition of NMDA, AMPA and Kainate receptors respectively?

Answer 69

Tetramers of GluN 1-3 Tetramers of GluA 1-4 Tetramers of GluK 1-5

Question 70

Are NMDA receptors located pre or post synaptically?

Answer 70

Post synaptically

Question 71

Are AMPA receptors located pre or post synaptically?

Answer 71

Presynaptically

Question 72

ARE Kainate receptors located pre or post synaptically?

Answer 72

Pre and post synaptically

Question 73

What is an example of a kinase linked receptor?

Answer 73

Cytokine receptors

Question 74

What is an example of nuclear (hormone) receptors?

Answer 74

Glucocorticoid receptor | Oestrogen receptor

Question 75

What are the three ways reduced signalling can occur, leading to receptor desensitisation?

Answer 75

Uncoupling of agonist binding from signalling Internalisation of receptor Reduction of receptor expression, due to reduced synthesis or degradation

Question 76

Define tachyphylaxis

Answer 76

Acute, sudden decrease in response to drug after administration

Question 77

Define tolerance

Answer 77

Decrease response to drug after chronic use

Question 78

Define addiction

Answer 78

Behavioural manifestation of tolerance