Lesson 2 - Observational Techniques Flashcards
Designs (overt/covert, natural/controlled, part/non-part), bias, sampling procedures, pilot study (30 cards)
What is a non-participant observation? Example?
The researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants and does not take part in their activities.
For example, a researcher investigating activities in the gym but does not get involved in any exercise. They just stand around and observe
Strength of non-participant observation
Investigator effects and social desirability bias are less likely as the researcher is not visible.
Weakness of non-participant observation
Due to a lack of proximity the researcher might overlook or miss behaviours of interest.
What is participant observation? Example?
This is when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants and will engage in the activities that they are doing.
For example, observing behaviour in the gym and the observer engages in exercise using the equipment.
Strengths of participant observation
The researcher can obtain in-depth data as they are in close proximity to the participants and so are unlikely to overlook or miss any behaviours.
Weaknesses of participant observation
The researchers’ presence might influence the participants’ behaviour due to social desirability bias.
What is covert observation? Example?
The psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity. They may even give themselves a **new identity. The group does not know that they are being observed. **
For example, they may introduce themselves as ‘Jim’ (fake name) and does not tell the people at the gym that he is really an observing psychologist.
Strengths of covert observations
Investigator effects are unlikely meaning that participants’ behaviour will be genuine. Participants will not show social desirability bias.
Weaknesses of covert observations
- Ethical issues may arise as there is no informed consent given and could be invading the privacy of participants.
What is an overt observation? Example?
The psychologist reveals their true identity and might also state that they are observing the group.
For example, the observer might let people know in the gym that they are an observing psychologist so that they are aware that they are being observed.
Strengths of overt observations
It is ethically acceptable as informed consent is given
Limitations of overt observations
More likely to record unnatural behaviour as participants know that they are being watched.
Demand characteristics likely to be produced - reduces validity of findings
What is a naturalistic observation? Example?
A researcher observes the participants in their own natural environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable.
For example, watching people exercise in an actual gym (typical setting as to which this would take place)
Strengths of naturalistic observations
They usually have high ecological validity as they have a high level of mundane realism as the behaviour is likely to reflect everyday behaviour because it is in a natural setting
Also useful when deliberate manipulation of the independent variable may be impractical or unethical, E.g it would be unethical to ask children to be aggressive to each other (IV) in a playground, so instead, if we observe if this happening naturally, this is more ethical as it is not being forced upon the participants.
Weaknesses of naturalistic observations
Low level of control over the observation means little control over extraneous variables. Therefore this could make the results invalid as the DV could be under the influence of other variables, and not the IV
May be difficult to determine cause and effect under little control. To determine C&E, you would need a controlled observation.
May also result in observer biases, as little control may result in subjectivity and biases when interpretation of behaviour. These could lead to unreliable results (if it was repeated, the same results may not be replicated)
What are controlled observations? Example?
The observer watches participants in a controlled environment. This allows for manipulation of the IV.
For example, the observer may watch participants in a laboratory setting and record behaviour, for example, giving participants a high IQ test to deliberately induce stress levels and observe their behaviour
Strengths of controlled observations
Cause and effect can be determined through manipulation of the IV and control of extraneous variables.
Control over extraneous variables make the results of the study more valid.
More easy to replicate due to control of variables, therefore results can be seen to be reliable.
Weaknesses of controlled observations
Low ecological validity because of the unnaturally high control of the variables. This means that the results may not be an accurate depiction of real life situations. Life is not that controlled.
Observer effects may occur as the participants know that they are being observed (overt). They may show social desirability bias and behave unnaturally making results invalid and not due to the effect of the IV.
What are observer biases? How do you minimise these?
Because the observer obviously knows the aim of the study, they may observe behaviour that they feel meets the aim and hypotheses.
These can be minimised by having two observers who record their data separately and then come together to correlate their data. If a Kappa Score of +0.8 or more is gained this means that the results are reliable. This is inter-rater reliability.
What are behavioural categories? Examples?
Specific types if behaviour that are being looked out for in an observation.
For example, when observing infant behaviours, we might make a list of behaviours that we want to look out for:
- Crying
- Smiling
- Laughing
What are the sampling procedures we can use?
Event sampling
Time sampling
What is event sampling? Examples?
The observer decides in advance what behaviour they are interested in and records all occurrences. All other behaviours are ignored.
For example, if we want to investigate coffee consumption at work, we can log every time someone gets up to get a coffee.
What is time-interval sampling?
The observer decided in advance that the observation will take place only during specific time periods, like every 10 minutes, every hour etc. they would record the occurrence of the specified behaviour during that period only.
For example, when investigating coffee consumption, we may start observing at 1pm, and at 1.30, we count how many people are drinking coffee. Then again at 2, and then 2.30 etc.
Strengths of time sampling
Less time consuming, as it reduces the number of observations that have to be made.
