Lesson 3

Question 1

3 types of fat substitutes

Answer 1

1. protein-based
2. carbohydrate-based
3. fat-based

Question 2

Why use fat substitutes?

Answer 2

• consumers are demanding healthier foods with less fat and calories
• increase in health problems (e.g. overeating, obesity, sedentary lifestyle)

Question 3

Simplesse

protein-based fat substitute

Answer 3

soy, milk (whey), or egg white protein is partially coagulated by heat, creating a micro-dispersion (microparticulation) consisting very small spheres of protein and water (0.1-0.2 microns)

1.3 Cal/g

• dispersion perceived as fluid with creaminess and richness of fat
• tiny particles are below the size limit we can feel with our tongue

Question 4

Where is Simplesse used?

Answer 4

ice cream, yogurt, cheese spread, salad dressings, margarine, mayonaise, coffee creamer, soups and sauces

not baked goods and chips; coagulation by heat forms microgels and the structure of gels collapses when heated

Question 5

Maltrin

carbohydrate-based fat substitute

Answer 5

• derived from corn, potato, wheat, tapioca, which contain cellulose, starch, gums, maltodextrins and fibre
• smooth mouthfeel and bland flavor
• fully digestible (4 Cal/g with fat = 9 Cal/g)

other carb-based fat substitutes available range from non-digestible to partially digestible (0-2 Cal/g) like Avicel and Betatrim

Question 6

Where is Maltrin used?

Answer 6

margarine, salad dressings, frozen desserts, frostings, processed meats

like Simplesse, doesn’t withold integrity at high temperatures

Question 7

Olean

fat-based fat substitute

Answer 7

• a sucrose polyester, also known as olestra
• approved in the US in 1996 but not in Canada
• can withstand high temperatures (e.g. frying)
• mimics rich taste and creamy texture of ordinary fat (because it’s made primarily from fat!)

Question 8

Olestra as a sucrose polyester

Answer 8

made of 6-8 fatty acid chains attached to a sucrose molecule instead of 3 FA chains attached to glycerol

Question 9

Consequences of large portions of Olestra snacks

Answer 9

abdominal cramping or changes in stool consistency

similar to consumption of high-fiber diets

Question 10

Why does Olestra cause digestive problems?

Answer 10

not absorbed or digested, rather it accumulates in the gastrointestinal tract

• fat-soluble nutrients in olestra-containing foods or other foods consumed at the same time are also not absorbed
• FDA required the addition of vitamins A, D, E, and K to compensate but the warning requirement was lifted in 2003

Question 11

Sweetener

according to food and drug regulation (FDR)

Answer 11

a food additive used to impart a sweet taste to food

e.g. aspartame, maltitol, sorbitol

Question 12

Sweetening agent

according to FDR

Answer 12

any food for which a standard is provided in Division 18, excluding those listed in tables to Division 16

e.g. white and brown table sugar, molasses, and honey

Question 13

3 reasons we use sweeteners

or sugar substitutes

Answer 13

1. for those with diabetes
2. for individuals concerned with high caloric intake
3. to reduce the risk of tooth decay (or cavities)

Question 14

Characteristics of sweeteners

Answer 14

• non-caloric: contain 0 Cal/g and not metabolized by the body (e.g. Acesulfame potassium, sucralose)
• non-nutritive or low-calorie: contribute ≤ 4 Cal/g but trace amount used due to high sweetness (e.g. Aspartame)

Question 15

Acesulfame Potassium (K)

non-caloric sweetener

Answer 15

• 200x sweeter than sucrose
• heat-stable
• no contribution to cavities
• not metabolized by the body (0 Cal/g)
• ADI of 15 mg/kg of body weight

discovered in 1967, marketed as Sunett, Swetone

Question 16

Sucralose or Splenda

non-caloric sweetener

Answer 16

• a chlorinated molecule: 3 hydroxyl groups (OH) of the sucralose molecule are replaced by chlorine
• 600x sweeter than sucrose
• heat-stable
• not metabolized by the human body (though questionable)
• ADI of 9 mg/kg body weight per day
• no effect in carbohydrate metabolism (no increase in blood glucose or insulin levels)

Question 17

Aspartame

low-calorie sweetener

Answer 17

• 2 amino acids: phenylalanine and aspartic acid
• 180-220x sweeter than sucrose
• 4 Cal/g
• ADI of 40 mg/kg body weight per day

discovered by accident in 1965 (Schlatter)

Question 18

Disadvantages of Aspartame

Answer 18

• phenylketonuria (PKU)
• degrades at high temperatures and over time, resulting in byproduct DKP, so cannot be used on baked goods

best before date necessary on products

Question 19

Neotame

low-calorie sweetener

Answer 19

• 2 amino acids: phenylalanine and aspartic acid
• 7000x sweeter than sucrose
• 4 Cal/g
• no increase in blood glucose or insulin levels
• ADI of 2 mg/kg body weight per day
• relatively heat-stable
• no problem for people with PKU

newer version of aspartame

Question 20

Sugar alcohols

low-calorie sweeteners

Answer 20

• naturally in many fruits but less sweet than sucrose (typically used along with other sweeteners)
• cooling sensation from alcohol
• do not promote dental caries
• no major increase in blood glucose or insulin levels
• slow absorption in body so may cause laxative effect (threshold 20-40 g/day)
• partially digested (1.5-3 Cal/g)

e.g. sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol

Question 21

Table-top sweeteners

allowed in Canada

Answer 21

• aspartame, acesulfame-K, sucralose (also permitted as sweeteners in foods)
• cyclamate, saccharin

saccharin is the oldest sweetener
* allowed only in pharmaceuticals
* banned in 1970 but reinstated in 2014

Question 22

2 kinds of sensory testing

Answer 22

1. analytical (objective) or product-oriented
2. affective (subjective) or people-oriented

Question 24

Analytical sensory testing

Answer 24

• quality/quantity of a characteristic
• similarities/differences between products
• standardization
• fewer people, selected and trained

Question 25

2 kinds of tests used in analytical sensory testing

Answer 25

1. discriminative (differences between 2 products) 2. descriptive

Question 26

Affective sensory testing

Answer 26

* acceptance/preference of a product * first impression and personal reaction * large number of panelists, representative of population

Question 27

3 kinds of tests used in affective sensory testing

Answer 27

1. hedonic (liking) 2. acceptability (whether a product meets basic expectations or standards) 3. preference

Question 27

3 aspects of food quality detectable by our senses

Answer 27

1. appearance factors 2. textural factors 3. flavor factors

Question 28

Examples of appearance factors ## Footnote food quality

Answer 28

color, shape, size, gloss, consistency, presence of defects

Question 29

Non-biased testing for flavor ## Footnote food quality

Answer 29

blindfolds or sensory testing facilities with special lighting (red light)

Question 30

4 methods for testing texture ## Footnote food quality

Answer 30

1. cutting 2. compression 3. tensile strength (tearing and pulling apart) 4. shearing (pressing and sliding)

Question 31

Taste component of flavor

Answer 31

* water-soluble substances * interact with sensory receptors on the tongue * detected in the mouth-tongue

Question 32

Smell component of flavor

Answer 32

* fat-soluble and volatile aroma compounds * interact with receptors in the nose (olfactory region) ## Footnote e.g. food seems bland when you have a cold because your nose is plugged so only water-soluble compounds are detected

Question 33

How can you test for the flavor of food when you have a cold?

Answer 33

* **flavor test:** taste food with/without aroma * **taste test:** compare sweetness of sugar near the tip vs sides of tongue; note tongue location that senses bitterness of coffee or beer

Question 34

4 basic taste sensations ## Footnote and proposed 5th sensation

Answer 34

* sweet, salty, sour, bitter * umami ## Footnote receptors are the same all over the tongue but are located in papilae that filter out different ions

Question 35

What provides sweet taste?

Answer 35

* mono and disaccharides * some amino acids and peptides (e.g. aspartame) * synthetic sweeteners (e.g. saccharin, cyclamate) * others (e.g. chloroform, lead acetate)

Question 36

What provides salty taste?

Answer 36

true salty taste only comes from sodium chloride ## Footnote **no successful substitutes!** * K-chloride gives a salty and bitter taste * Na-sulphate gives a bitter and slightly salty taste * Ca-chloride is very bitter * Cesium chloride is sweet

Question 37

What provides sour taste?

Answer 37

protonated H+, organic and inorganic acids ## Footnote e.g. vinegar (acetic acid), others (citric, tartaric, malic, lactic, fumaric, phosphoric acids)

Question 38

What provides bitter taste?

Answer 38

* typically alkaloids (e.g. caffeine in coffee and tea, or theobromine in chocolate) * some salts (e.g. Na-sulphate, Ca-chloride) * amino acids and peptides (e.g. sharpness, bitterness of aged Cheddar cheese)

Question 39

Umami (savory)

Answer 39

* discovered in 1908 by Professor K. Ikeda while working with Kombu seaweed * extracted cyrstals of glutamic acid, converted to glutamate (found in MSG), which creates a distinctive taste ## Footnote e.g. high glutamate content in soy sauce, parmesan cheese, roquefort cheese

Question 40

Flavor enhancers ## Footnote i.e. potentiators, modifiers

Answer 40

modify or enhance the intensity or quality of taste of another substance ## Footnote * MSG (meaty and vegetable flavors), 5'-nucleotides (meaty flavors) * torula yeast, autolyzed yeast extract, hydrolyzed protein, yeast extract naturally have concentrated MSG * maltol modifies flavors of high carbohydrate foods and beverages * miracle fruit gives a sweet aftertaste

Question 41

Astringency

Answer 41

* a physical sensation desribed as a puckering in the mouth * attributed to tannins or polyphenols of high molecular weight (e.g. black tea)

Question 42

Pungency

Answer 42

sensation of spicy heat in the oral cavity ## Footnote e.g. chili peppers

Question 43

Coolness

Answer 43

various sugar alcohols such as xylitol and sorbitol, or compounds such as menthol (e.g. chewing gum)