Lithosphere

Question 1

Describe the igneous processes that can cause the formation of metal ores around batholith.(2)

Answer 1

Hydrothermal/hot solutions;
cooling/freezing out/coming out of solution/crystallisation/separation; in vein;

magmatic segregation;
crystal/mineral density/melting point;

contact metasomatism;
mineral/rock replacement;

named mineral/ore;

[R metal unless elemental mineral]

Question 2

Describe how future mineral supplies can be increased by better exploration techniques.(2)

Answer 2

Named technique;;
description of how it works;;
eg  
remote sensing 
monitoring from a distance/aerial/satellite surveys 

gravimetry
density/force of gravity/igneous ores/named dense mineral

scintillometry/Geiger counter
radioactivity/named radioactive material

magnetometry
magnetic materials/magnetite/pyrrhotite/ilmenite/other named example

resistivity
ease of passage of electricity/metal ores/named ore

seismic/sonar
reflected/vibrations

core
sampling chemical/physical analysis

IR emission
analysis of different wave lengths

geobotany
plants associated with minerals

Question 3

Explain the difference in the meanings of ‘resource’ and ‘reserve’. (2)

Answer 3

Resource
amount present/that can theoretically be exploited;

reserve
amount that can be exploited economically now/with existing technology;

Question 4

Explain why the chemical form of a metal ore may affect the viability of exploitation. (2)

Answer 4

Named ore/mineral/metal;
qualified ease of (chemical) separation/bond breaking;
ref to reactivity;

Question 5

Outline a technique that can be used to exploit low-grade ores. (2)

Answer 5

Named technique;
detail of method;

acid added
dissolves

bacteria/Thiobacillus
acid produced bioconcentration
hyperaccumulators/named taxon eg brassicas

precipitation/displacement
named chemical added eg Fe to displace Cu

electrolysis
ion deposition/electrode

ion substitution
named (ion) exchange material eg resin

open-cast mining
economies of scale

Question 6

Explain the meaning of the term ‘cut-off ore grade’. (2)

Answer 6

Lowest grade;

that can be economically exploited;

Question 7

Describe the effect that increased mechanisation has had on the amount of metal ore that can be mined. (2)

Answer 7

Increased amount;
deeper mining;
less labour intensive;
lower production/extraction costs/increased profit/more can be spent on mining

Question 8

Suggest how the rapidly expanding industrial economies of China and India may affect the viability of tin mining at South Crofty. (3)

Answer 8

Increased demand;
higher (market) price/reduced cut-off ore grade;
increased viability;
OR
increased supply;
reduced price/increased cut off ore grade;
reduced viability/shuts

Question 9

Describe how the typical pH of drainage water from the mine may be measured. (3)

Answer 9

Large sample numbers/long time period/regular samples/sample location;

pH meter;
calibration;
OR 
pH papers/solution/universal indicator/ref to pH/values;
colour comparison;
barium sulfate/sediment removal; 

[R litmus papers]

Question 10

Describe how the organic matter content of a soil sample may be estimated. (4)

Answer 10

Dry soil;
weigh sample (of dry soil afterwards);
heat to approx 500 °C/with Bunsen burner; 
burn off/oxidise organic matter; 
re-weigh (burnt soil);
constant mass; 
mass difference = OM content (dry – burnt); 
calculate OM as a percent of dry soil;

Question 11

Suggest how bacteria in the soil may affect its fertility. (4)

Answer 11

Nitrogen fixation; 
root nodules;
nitrification;
dentrification;
decomposition; 
nutrients released;
named nutrient (released);; humification;
weathering;
respiration;
pH change/organic acids produced;
toxin production;
named bacterial taxa eg Rhizobium, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, Azotobacter, Pseudomonas, Nostoc;;

Question 12

Outline how topography may affect the suitability of a site for reservoir construction. (2)

Answer 12

Named/described topographical feature;
impact on suitability;
eg
valley shape, steep sides, narrow exit for dam
effect on volume, evaporation rate, land loss

Question 13

Outline how geology may affect the suitability of a site for reservoir construction.(2)

Answer 13

Named/described geological feature;
impact on suitability;
eg 
permeability 
speed of flow into/out of bedrock 

stability/seismic activity/faults
collapse risk

stability/strength
subsidence risk

Question 14

Outline two features of the overburden above the mineral that can affect the viability of the mine. (4)

Answer 14

Feature;;
advantage/disadvantage;;
eg 
hard 
difficulty mining 

loose, uncompacted
landslides, more removed

deep
increased cost

permeable
drainage problems

chemical composition
pollution risk

Question 15

Outline two methods of reducing environmental problems caused by mine machinery. (4)

Answer 15

Method to reduce problem 1;
detail of method 1;

method to reduce problem 2;
detail of method 2;

eg
water sprays for dust
settling

baffle mounds/trees for noise
absorption/deflection

timing/routing of traffic
avoid sensitive times/areas

choice of quieter transport method
rail replaces lorries

change of fuel to reduce spillage problems (biofuel)
biodegradable

Question 16

One method used in spoil heap reclamation is the addition of soil followed by tree planting. The soil must have the right texture to reduce the risk of soil erosion.

Outline a method used to estimate the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample. (2)

Answer 16

Add water and suspend/shake;
allow to settle; 
measure proportions; 
OR 
dry;
(shake through) sieve; 
weigh;

Question 17

Suggest two ways in which exploiting low grade ores may cause increased environmental damage. (4)

Answer 17

Increased quantity that must be mined;
increased land take;

increased waste production;
named problem caused by waste;

increased energy use;
named problem of energy use;

Question 18

Use an example to outline how material substitution can be used to conserve finite resources.(2)

Answer 18

Named new and replaced materials;
named use/property;
eg 
plastic replaces steel/chromium 
bumpers/body panels/lower density/cheaper 

plastic replaces copper
fibre optics/light/total internal reflection

plastic replaces copper/lead
lighter/cheaper/glueable/piping

plastic replaces aluminium
reduced use of fossil fuels

biodiesel replaces fossil fuels
renewable

Question 19

Describe how better exploratory techniques can be used to increase the proven reserves of minerals. (4)

Answer 19

Up to 3 named methods;;;
up to 2 features of how methods work;;
eg 
remote sensing/airborne surveys 
gravimetry 
scintillometry 
magnetometry 
resistivity 
submarines/ROV 
radar 
GPS 
soil/rock chemical analysis

Question 20

A student planned a practical activity to determine the organic matter content of the soil in a field.

Describe a sample collection procedure which would ensure that the samples were representative of the whole field. (3)

Answer 20

Random/systematic/stratified sampling; 
how sampling sites are located; 
eg 
grid/random numbers number of samples; 
sample size;
depth of samples; 
timing of samples; 
standardised collection method; 
explanation of why samples are representative;

Question 21

Describe how the organic matter content of a dry soil sample could be measured. (3)

Answer 21

Weigh;
heat to high temperature/500−800°C/use Bunsen burner;
burn off/oxidise organic matter;
constant mass;
calculate mass drop/difference/percentage

Question 22

Soil organisms play important roles in the nitrogen cycle.

Describe a method used to extract detritivores from soil.(3)

Answer 22

Tullgren funnel;
heat/light;
downward movement;
collection;
OR 
detergent/irritant/alternative material; 
collection area;
worms come to surface; 
detail of timing; 
OR 
measured area;
measured depth;
dig up soil;
hand sort/count worms;

Question 23

Outline methods, other than revegetation, that can be used to stabilise mine spoil heaps. (4)

Answer 23

Method 1;
how method works;

Method 2;
how method works;

Method 3;

eg
landscaping/reduced slope angle/regraded/flatten out/spread
runoff slower/shearing reduced

organic matter incorporated
soil particle cohesion increased/stick together

addition of fertiliser/nutrients/lime/pH control
increased growth/root binding

compaction
increased cohesion/lower water content/soil particles stick together

drainage control/terracing/runoff collection/redirection
reduced lubrication/saturation/soil mass

toe foot support/retaining wall
barrier to movement/reduces shearing (stress)/prevents basal erosion

ground anchors/piles/poles and net/mesh
holds spoil together/allows plants to grow through

[R method if description is contradictory]

Question 24

Describe how a Tüllgren funnel may be used to extract small invertebrates from a soil sample. (4)

Answer 24

Soil sample in middle/lower container/above funnel/below light;
light/heat;
time;
organisms repelled/move away (from light/heat);
[R movement due to gravity] 
through grill/mesh/filter/seive;
collected (in container); 
preservative/named preservative; 
named taxon;

Question 25

Explain why some soil invertebrates cannot be extracted using a Tüllgren funnel. (2)

Answer 25

Not mobile/too slow; too large/big to pass through holes/grill/mesh/filter; [R too large to enter funnel] desiccation/die; not repelled by/attracted to light/heat/dryness; named taxon;

Question 26

Habitat biodiversity is affected by soil pH. Describe how soil pH may be measured. (3)

Answer 26

``` EITHER multiple/many samples; addition of distilled water; pH meter;calibration; OR multiple/many samples; add distilled water; barium sulfate addition; pH papers/solution/universal indicator; colour comparison/reference to range of colours; [R litmus papers/red-blue] ```

Question 27

Outline how soil structure affects soil fertility. (2)

Answer 27

Named ped/structure/description of ped feature; eg crumb/block/plate/shape and size property affecting fertility; eg drainage/leaching/nutrient content/nutrient release/water content/aeration/root penetration/ temperature/ thermal capacity [R reference to properties caused by texture/sand/silt/clay]

Question 28

Describe one method that can be used to analyse the texture of a soil sample.(3)

Answer 28

``` EITHER Sieves/filters; dry soil; shake; ref to sequence different sizes of holes; ref to order of sand, silt, clay (in sieve stack); mass/volume percentage calculation; OR sedimentation: water; shake; settle; ref to order of (settling of) sand, silt, clay; mass/volume percentage calculation; ```

Question 29

Describe how the texture of a soil affects its properties. (4)

Answer 29

``` Named particle type; how texture directly affects: drainage/permeability; porosity; leaching; capillary action; water content; nutrient content; aeration; decomposition rate; aerobic biota; temperature/thermal capacity; erodibility; friability/ease of cultivation/root penetration; particle charges/attraction; ```

Question 30

Outline the reasons why a mine may not be developed, even if rich ore deposits have been found. (4)

Answer 30

Ore body distribution/fragmented/irregular shape; chemical form/difficulty of chemical extraction; named land use conflict/local opposition; ease of site access; named overburden property/hard/loose; depth of deposit/overburden thickness; drainage difficulties; seismic problems; infrastructure problems; eg transport, energy, water workforce availability/cost; political/named economic problems; named technological problem; [R ore purity]

Question 31

Describe the main processes that have produced deposits of minerals and rocks that may be exploited by humans. Quality of Written Communication will be assessed in this answer. (10)

Answer 31

``` Igneous; named eg; igneous processes;;; eg tectonic/plate movements magma/molten rock extrusive/intrusive batholith rate of crystallisation hydrothermal solubility temperature contact metasomatism magmatic segregation ``` ``` metamorphic; named eg; metamorphic processes;;; eg changing form of existing rock intense heat intense pressure source of heat/pressure ``` ``` sedimentary; named eg; sedimentary processes;;; eg weathering/erosion (of existing rock) wind deposited alluvial sorting placer deposits evaporite biological deposits compaction cementation chemical precipitation ```

Question 32

Explain the effect of the development of new methods of exploiting low-ore grades on the quantity of a metal that can be extracted economically. (2)

Answer 32

(reserves) increase/more deposits become accessible/exploitable; reduced production costs/ lower energy inputs; bioleaching/phytomining/electrolysis/named low ore grade extraction technique;

Question 33

Explain the effect of an increase in the market price of the purified metal on the quantity of metal that can be extracted economically. (2)

Answer 33

(reserves) increase; | previously uneconomic deposits become economic/cut-off ore grade decrease/ can afford to spend more on extraction;

Question 34

Explain the effect of an increase in the cut-off ore grade on the quantity of a metal that can be extracted economically. (2)

Answer 34

(reserves) decrease; | previously exploitable/ lower grade deposits no longer economic;

Question 35

Explain how the timing of sampling may have been standardised to collect representative data of the pH of the river which receives the acidic drainage water. (2)

Answer 35

frequent enough/ monthly or more frequently; | to detect fluctations

Question 36

Suggest two reasons to explain the fluctuations in the pH of the river water. (2)

Answer 36

time-related factor that may affect results;; eg fluctuation in rainfall/runoff snow melt fluctuation in evaporation changes in pumping/ discharge from mine/ mine activity intermittent addition of lime

Question 37

Describe the processes involved in the formation of hydrothermal metal ores that make present-day economic exploitation viable. (3)

Answer 37

mineral dissolved in hot water; movement away from batholith/ along fissures cooling; reduced solubility; crystallisation; order of deposition/ separation of different minerals (by solubility); in veins/lodes/local concentration

Question 38

Name the physical conditions under which metamorphic processes produce marble.(1)

Answer 38

intense heat and pressure;

Question 39

Describe how two named exploratory techniques may be used to find previously undiscovered mineral deposits (4)

Answer 39

``` named method; description of how method locates minerals; eg IR spectroscopy emission of different wavelengths ``` gravitmetry density magnetometry magnetic minerals seismic surveys/ ground penetrating radar sound/pressure waves- depth/density/shape resistivity ease of conduction of electricity geobotany plant presence areial/ satellite imagery topography trial drilling chemical analysis

Question 40

Outline how remote sensing may be used to detect the location of mineral deposits. (3)

Answer 40

``` named method; what it detects; eg image/scan/photograph topography/IR emissions ``` magnetrometry magnetic minerals/iron/named iron ore gravimetry density/named metal ore scintillometry/geiger counter radioactive materials/uranium seismic surveys/ ground penetrating radar/sonar/ultrasound changes in density/depth/angle resistivity changes in conductivity/named conductive material/metals side looking radar/SLAR topography/ alluvial deposits [R core sampling]

Question 41

Suggest why a mine may not be developed, even if ore deposits above the cut-off ore grade have been found. (5)

Answer 41

``` size/shape of deposit; depth; overburden hardness; overburden stability; named land-use conflict; transport infrastructure; energy supplies; hydrology; political problems; wrong chemical form; faulting/seismicity; stated economic cost; ```

Question 42

How would the area that may be mined economically change if the COOG decreases? (1)

Answer 42

increases;

Question 43

Describe one named remote sensing method that may be used to find ares where the trial drilling. (3)

Answer 43

``` named method; details of method; eg gravimetry variations in density igneous rocks ``` magnetometry variations in magnetism iron/magnetite/named magnetic metal/mineral seismc surveys/ground penetrating radar/sonar/ultrasound shock waves/echoes/reflection depth/density/angle/3D image IR sensors differences in IR emissions detect rocks/minerals/vegetation side looking radar/ultrasound topography alluvial deposits resistivity/conductivity ease of electricity flow meatal-bearing rock aerial photography topography salt dome/fault line/valleys/variations in rock erosion/folding

Question 44

Explain why the exploitation of low-grade ores may increase the environmental damage caused by mineral exploitation. (3)

Answer 44

``` greater area mined/more habit loss; more overburden/spoil; more rock/ore extracted; more energy used; more waste produced/pollution caused; ```

Question 45

How does the resource of a mineral differ from its reserves? (2)

Answer 45

resource theoretical maximum exploitable amounts; reserve exploitable with existing technology at current prices

Question 46

What is meant by resource? (2)

Answer 46

(quantity that is) theoretically exploitable; | at any price with any technology;

Question 47

What is meant by reserves? (2)

Answer 47

(quantity that is) exploitable now; | at current prices with existing technology;

Question 48

Recycling used materials helps to extend the lifespan of mineral reserves. Describe why it is difficult to recycle some used materials. (2)

Answer 48

``` material identification; mixed materials/material separation; dispersed/transport distance; low waste density/bulky; low/reduced quality; hazardous/toxic/stated danger; thermoset plastics; irreversible chemical reaction/theroset; ```

Question 49

Recycling used materials helps to extend the lifespan of mineral reserves. Use an example to outline how material substitution may reduce demand for a named material. (3)

Answer 49

``` named material used linked to; named material replaced; named use; eg plastic copper pipes ```

Question 50

Mine drainage watercan alter the pH of the rivers into which the water is discharged. Describe one method that can be used to measure the pH of mine drainage water. (2)

Answer 50

``` electronic pH meter/probe; calibrated; or universal indicator solution/papers; [R litmus paper] colour comparison/colour chart/colorimeter; ```

Question 51

Outline two other environmental problems for local rivers, which may be caused by mine drainage water, and suggest how the mine drainage water may be treated to control each problem. (4)

Answer 51

``` problem;; linked solution;; eg turbidity/suspended solids sedimentation/filtration/settling or heavy metal leachate lime/high pH reducd solubility/phytoremediation/electrolysis [R toxic leachate unless qualified] or altered river flow rate control of pumping rate or phosphates iron salts/flocculation/reed bed/phytoremediation or soluble iron aeration or cyanide oxidation/ use of SO2 ```

Question 52

Describe methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by the solid wastes produced by mining. (4)

Answer 52

``` method;;; description of how method works;; eg sloped reduction/grading/recontouring decreased water velocity/decreased particle mobility ``` spoil compaction increased particle cohesion/reduced erosion reduced water content netting/bolting reduced particle mobility drainage reduced particle mobility/reduced lubrication/reduced mass top soil addition increased plant growth fertiliser addition increased plant growth vegetation planting root binding reduced wind velocity/reduced water velocity backfilling alternative use of spoil water spray dust aggregation credit each description only once

Question 53

Decribe the proocesses that produce hydrothermal metal mineral deposits. (4)

Answer 53

hot water/steam; dissolved minerals; different solubility (of different metal minerals); movement (of solution along fissure/vent/fault); cooling (of solution); deposition/crystallisation/coming out of solution/precipitaion; order (of deposition)/ separation;

Question 54

Before a mine can be developed, thorough surveys of the mineral deposits and associated geological structures must be over taken. Outline how an assessment of the viability of a mine requires information about the mineral deposits. (3)

Answer 54

``` ore purity; chemical form; ore body area; ore body shape; total mass/quantity; effect of feature on viability; ``` [R unqualified economics]

Question 55

Before a mine can be developed, thorough surveys of the mineral deposits and associated geological structures must be over taken. Outline how an assessment of the viability of a mine requires information about the associated geological structures. (3)

Answer 55

``` overburden hardness (of removal); overburden stability (for landslip risk); depth/overburden thickness; drainage; faulting; shape of structure/anticline/syncline/dome/dip/named example; designated/protected geological feature; effect of feature on viability; ```

Question 56

Suggest one reason why the energy used for extraction increases as the ore grade declines. (1)

Answer 56

more ore/rock needs to be extracted/processed/waste removed/ named processing activity; (chemically) difficult to extract very low concentrations/ separate metals from ore/ extra processes needed/more refining;

Question 57

Describe one method that is used to extract metals from low ore grade. (2)

Answer 57

``` one suitable method; detail of how it works; eg leachate collection/recycling/evaporation electrolysis ``` thiobacillus/acidthiobacillus/bacteria oxidise sulfur/produce acid/ acidic solution dissolves metal/copper phytoremediation/hyperaccumulators/brassicas absorption of metal ion exchange/polymer surface adsorption of metal/ions addition of more reactive metal precipitation gold dissolves in mercury/(sodium) cyanide

Question 58

Exploratory drilling to search for new deposits is very expensive. Describe one method that is used to find the areas where drilling may be worthwhile. (2)

Answer 58

``` named exploratory method; detail of how method works; eg gravimetry detection of changes in rock density ``` magnetometry detection of changes in rock magnetism geobotany plants as indicators of rock type seismic surveys/echoes/vibrations/sonar/radar/ultrasound indicate depth/shape/hardness/density of rock satellite/aerial imagery named geological structures/topography/reflectance signatures resistivity measurements relative resistances indicate rock type radioactivity measurement indicates specific rocks/named example UV detection fluorescence of particular minerals [R core drilling, unqualified remote sensing]

Question 59

Suggest why an increase in the market price may change the cut-off ore grade of a mineral. (3)

Answer 59

more money available for extraction/investment/expensive techniques; lower grade ores can be exploited; COOG goes down;

Question 60

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of using satellite techniques rather than ground-based surveys. (4)

Answer 60

``` advantages;; eg large area surveyed rapidly surveys of inaccessible areas cost effective/less labour intensive lower habitat impact ``` ``` disadvantages;; eg high inital cost less detailed information less sub-surface information clouds obscure surface no physicalsamples (for analysis) ```

Question 61

Explain why the cut-off ore grade was at its highest. (1)

Answer 61

(lowest price so) greater purity (needed to be profitable/economic)

Question 62

Explain why the market price caused the estimates of reserves to increase. (1)

Answer 62

previously uneconomic resource/lower grade ore becomes economic

Question 63

Use one example to describe how material substitution may be used to conserve the reserves of metal minerals. (2)

Answer 63

``` named material and use; named alternative material for that use; eg copper (telecoms) cables plastic ``` copper pipes plastic copper (electricity) cables aluminium steel/aluminium car panels plastic/carbon fibre/composite material

Question 64

Describe a method that may be used to extend the operation of a mine by exploiting low-ore grades.(2)

Answer 64

``` one suitable method; detail of how it works; eg leachate collection/recycling electrolysis ``` bacteria oxidise sulfur/produce acid/acidic solution dissolves metal/copper large scale mechanisation/named improvemt in technology economies of scale/cheaper per tonne of material phtyoremediation/hyperaccumulators/brassicas absorption of metal

Question 65

Explain why the exploitation of low ore grades is likely to affect the energy required to extract the metal. (2)

Answer 65

increased energy requirements; | more difficult extraction/processing/time-consuming/more material method

Question 66

Outline how a change in the economy may cause the cut-off ore grade of a mineral to change. (2)

Answer 66

``` named factor; correct direction of change; eg more market demand COOG goes down ``` increased sales price COOG goes down

Question 67

Outline methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by machinery noises. (2)

Answer 67

Acoustic insulation (of machinery); absorption;baffle mounds/embankments/walls/vegetation; buffer zone; reflection/deflection; operations at less annoying times/time zoning; maintenance/lubrication of machinery; transport routes away from sensitive areas;

Question 68

Outline methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by dust (2)

Answer 68

Water sprays/sprinklers/bowsers/road washing; settling/collection; compaction;vegetation/trees; overed loads; filters/face masks/electrostatic precipitator/cyclone separator;

Question 69

Outline two other ways in which open-cast mining causes more environmental damage than deep mining. (4)

Answer 69

``` Cause;; linked damage;; [A suitable damage example even if cause incorrect] [A two examples of linked damage to one cause] eg proximity to sensitive areas aesthetics mobility of pollutants ``` more overburden removed waste disposal greater surface disturbance habitat loss turbid drainage water reduced light/photosynthesis/smothering organisms (spoil) leachate named toxic material more/larger spoil heaps stability/landslides

Question 70

Describe how a sedimentation lagoon reduces environmental problems. (2)

Answer 70

time/static; suspended solids/particles settle (in lagoon); [R sedimentation without reference to particles] reduces sedimentation/turbidity/light penetration problems (in river);

Question 71

Describe how tree planting on spoil heaps reduces environmental problems. (2)

Answer 71

root binding/increased interception/wind break/increased OM; reduced erosion/runoff/dust/landslides/increased stability; reduced aesthetic impact; detail of method; eg hides spoil heap, blends into landscape, mixed age/species structure

Question 72

Describe how baffle mounds reduces environmental problems. (2)

Answer 72

reflects/deflects/absorbs (sound); | reduced noise/nuisance;