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LS 2 > LS 2 midterm 2 > Flashcards

LS 2 midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

cell response to a signal molecule (3 steps)

A
  1. signal binds to a receptor in the cell (often in outside surface of plasma membrane)
  2. signal binding conveys a message to the cell
  3. the cell changes its activity in response to the signal
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2
Q

signal transduction pathways

A

a sequence of molecular events and chemical reactions that lead to a cell’s response to a signal
(all involve a signal, a receptor, and a response)

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3
Q

autocrine

A

signals that diffuse to and affect the cells that make them

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4
Q

example of autocrine signal

A

tumor cells reproducing uncontrollably because they both make, and respond to, signals that stimulate cell division

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5
Q

juxtacrine

A

signals affect only cells adjacent to the cell producing the signal

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6
Q

when is juxtacrine signaling common

A

during development

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7
Q

paracrine

A

signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells
local mediators
e.g. histamines, EGFS

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8
Q

example of paracrine signaling

A

a neurotransmitter made by one nerve cell that diffuses to a nearby cell and stimulates it

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9
Q

hormones

A

signals that travel through the circulatory systems of animals or the vascular systems of plants

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10
Q

crosstalk

A

interactions between different signal transduction pathways

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11
Q

what is an inhibitor (or antagonist)

A

molecule that can also bind to a receptor protein instead of the normal ligand

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12
Q

example of an inhibitor

A

caffeine - the nucleoside adenosine acts as a ligand that binds to a receptor on nerve cells, initialing a signal transduction pathway that reduces brain acitivity, but caffeine has a similar structure to adenosine and binds to the adenosine receptor, but doesn’t initial the signal transduction pathway, allowing continued nerve cell activity and arousal

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13
Q

2 types of receptors

A

cell surface/membrane receptors and intracellular receptors

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14
Q

example of need for a membrane receptor

A

insulin - protein hormone that cannot diffuse through membrane, so needs a transmembrane receptor with an extracellular binding domain

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15
Q

example of need for intracellular receptors

A

estrogen - small, lipid soluble steroid hormone that can diffuse across cell membrane so it binds to a receptor inside the cell

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16
Q

where are most plant light receptors located?

A

intracellular

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17
Q

3 main categories of plasma membrane receptors (eukaryotic)

A

ion channels, protein kinase receptors, and G protein linked receptors

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18
Q

ion channels

A

proteins that allow ions to enter/exit cell by responding to a specific signal such as sensory stimuli or chemical ligands

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19
Q

example of ion channel

A

acetyl choline receptor - gated ion channel - 2 molecules of Acetyl choline bind to receptor protein, it opens for 1000th of a second and allows Na+ to to move into the cell via simple diffusion and this change in concentration inside the cell initiates events that result in muscle contraction

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20
Q

protein kinase receptors

A

when activated they catalyze the phosphorylation of themselves/or other proteins, thus changing shape and therefore function

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21
Q

example of protein kinase receptor

A

insulin - a protein hormone - its receptor has 2 copies each of 2 different polypeptide subunits (alpha and beta) and when insulin binds to the receptor, the receptor becomes activivated and phosphorylates itself and insulin response substrates which initiates other cellular responses including insertion of glucose transporters into the plasma membrane

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22
Q

G protein linked receptors

A

seven transmembrane domain receptors; roles include photreceptors (light detection), olfactory detection (smell); and regulation of mood and behavior

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23
Q

example of g-protein receptors in action

A

oxytocin and vasopressin hormone binding which affect mating behavior in voles

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24
Q

common number of polypeptide subunits in G proteins

A

3

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25
Q

what 3 types of molecules can G proteins bind to

A

the receptor; GDP and GTP; an effector protein

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26
Q

intracellular receptors

A

located inside the cell and respond to physical signals such as light or chemical signals that can diffuse across the membrane

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27
Q

g-protein steps

A
  1. hormone binding to the receptor activates the G protein. GTP replaces GDP.
  2. part of the activated G protein activates an effector protein that causes changes in cell function
  3. The GTP on the G protein is hydrolyzed to GDP
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28
Q

intracellular receptor cortisol steps

A
  1. receptor chaperone complex cannot enter the nucleus
  2. cortisol enters the cytoplasm and binds to the receptor
  3. causing the receptor to change shape and release the chaperone
  4. which allows the receptor and the cortisol ligand to enter the nucleus
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29
Q

what is the result of a signal cascade of events

A
  • proteins interact with other proteins which interact with other proteins until desired effect is achieved
  • the initial signal can be amplified and distributed to cause several different responses in the target cell
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30
Q

what are protein kinase receptors important in

A

binding signals called growth factors that stimulate cell division in both plants and animals

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31
Q

what happens with abnormal ras

A

it’s a g-protein and abnormal form is always active because it’s permanently bound to GTP and thus caused continuous cell division

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32
Q

how normal ras works

A
  1. receptor activation leads to activation of the G protein, RAS
  2. brief stimulation of cell division
  3. after a brief time in the active form, RAS returns to inactive form
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33
Q

how abnormal ras works

A

receptor leads to activation of RAS, which stays active

2. constant stimulation of cell division

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34
Q

example of a protein kinase cascade

A
  1. growth factor binds to its receptor
  2. phosphorylates itself
  3. activated receptor initiates a series of events that allow ras to bind GTP and become activated
  4. activated ras binds and activates Raf
  5. activated Raf is a protein kinase that phosphorylates many molecules of MEK
  6. activated MEK is a protein kinase that phosphorylates many molecules of MAP kinase
  7. MAP kinase, when activated by phosphorylation, can enter the nucleus and lead to cellular responses
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35
Q

why are protein kinase cascades useful signal transducers (4 reasons)

A
  1. at each step, the signal is amplified because each newly activated protein kinase is an enzyme that can catalyze the phosphorylation of many target proteins
  2. the info from a signal that originally arrived at the plasma membrane is communicated to the nucleus where the expression of multiple genes is often modified
  3. the multitude of steps provides some specificity to the process
  4. different target proteins at each step in the cascade can provide variation in the response
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36
Q

experiment to discover a second messenger causes the activation of glycogen phosphorylase

A
  1. liver tissue is homogenized and separated into plasma membrane and cytoplasm fractions
  2. the hormone epinephrine is added to the molecules and allows to incubate
  3. the membranes are removed by centrifugation, leaving only the solution in which they were incubated
  4. drops of membrane-free solution are added to the cytoplasm
    result: glycogen phosphorylase in the cytoplasm is activated
    conclusion: a soluble second messenger, produced by hormone activated membranes, is present in the solution and activates enzymes in the cytoplasm
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37
Q

example of calcium ions working as messengers

7.14

A

fertilization in a starfish egg causes a rush of Ca 2+ from the environment into the cytoplasm (represented as red dye) from start to finish egg goes from mostly blue to almost all red
calcium signaling triggers cell division in fertilized eggs, initiating development

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38
Q

IP3/DAG second messenger system steps

7.13

A
  1. the receptor binds the hormone
  2. the activated g-protein subunit dissociates and activates phospholipase C
  3. the activated enzyme produces the second messengers DAG and IP3 from PIP2
  4. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels, leading to an increase in cytostolic Ca2+
  5. DAG and Ca2+ activate protein kinase c (PKC)
  6. PKC phosphorylates enzymes and other proteins
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39
Q

Nitric oxide in signal transduction (signal: acetylcholine; effect: smooth muscle relaxation)
(7.15)

A
  1. acetylcholine binds to receptors on endothelial cells of blood vessels; activation of the receptor causes production of IP3
  2. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels on the ER membrane, releasing Ca2+ into the cytostol
  3. Ca2+ stimulates NO synthase (enzyme that makes NO gas from arginine)
  4. NO diffuses to the smooth muscle cells, where it stimulates cGMP synthesis
  5. cGMP promotes muscle relaxation
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40
Q

signals can lead to production of active transducers; what are the 3 kinds
and the enzymes that remove or inactivate them
(7.16)

A

a. protein kinases – removed by – protein phosphatase
b. g proteins – removed by – GTPase
c. cAMP – removed by – phosphodiesterase

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41
Q

pathways for a scent

7.17

A
  1. binding of an odorant to its receptor activates a g-protein
  2. the g-protein activates the synthesis of cAMP
  3. cAMP causes ion channels to open
  4. changes in ion concentrations (Na+ and Ca2+) inside the cell initiate a signal to a specific area of the brain, which perceives the signal as a scent
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42
Q

example of liver cells responding to epinephrine cascade

7.18

A
  1. phosphorylation induced by epinephrine binding INACTIVATES glycogen synthase, preventing glucose from being stored as glycogen
  2. protein kinase cascade amplifies signal (every molecue of epinephrine, 20 cAMPs are made, each of which activates 1 PKA)
  3. phosphorylation ACTIVATES glycogen phosphorylase, releasing stored glucose molecules from glycogen
  4. release of glucose fuels ‘fight or flight’ response
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43
Q

how do animal cells coordinate activities

7.19 A

A

gap junctions (~1.5 nm channel) connecting the ~2 nm gap between cells

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44
Q

how do plant cells coordinate activities

7.19 B

A

plasmodesmata; desmotubule comes from smooth ER and fills up most of the space inside

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45
Q

what can pass through gap junctions

A

ions and small signal molecules

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46
Q

what can pass through plasmodesmata

A

small metabolites and ions

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47
Q

what makes up the wall of gap junctions

A

integral membrane proteins from the adjacent plasma membranes and connexons which form thin channels between 2 adjacent cells

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48
Q

what makes up the wall of plasmodesmata

A

lined by the fused plasma membranes and filled with a desmotubule

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49
Q

evolution from single celled to multicellular organisms

A
  1. aggregation of cells into a cluster
  2. intercellular communication within the cluster
  3. specialization of some cells within the cluster
  4. organization of specialized cells into groups
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50
Q

possible cellular responses to a signal

A
  1. opening of ion channels
  2. alteration of enzyme activities
  3. changes in gene expression
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51
Q

what happens during protein kinase binding

A

covalently add phosphate groups to target proteins

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52
Q

what happens during cAMP binding

A

binds target proteins noncovalently

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53
Q

what does cAMP and PK binding both do

A

change the target protein’s conformation to expose or hide its active site

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54
Q

how can we infer the evolution of cell communication and tissue formation
(7.20)

A

from exisiting organisms like certain green algae (e.g. volvocine line of aqauatic green algae) can see range from single celled to complex multicellular organisms

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55
Q

how does photosynthesis work?

10.1

A
  1. sugars (organic products of photosynthesis) are transported throughout the plant body
  2. CO2 enters and O2 and H2O exit te leaves through pores called stomata
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56
Q

experiment proving H2O is the source of oxygen in photosynthesis rather than CO2

A
  1. give some plants isotope labeled water and unlabeled CO2 and give others isotope labeled CO2 and unlabeled water
  2. test O2 products to see if they had the isotope markers
  3. results: oxygen released was labeled for the labeled H2O and unlabeled for unlabeled H2O
    conclusion: H2O is the source of O atoms in O2 produced by photosynthesis
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57
Q

revised equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 12H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

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58
Q

what gets oxidized and reduced in photosynthesis

A 
oxygen atoms (in reduced state in H2O) get oxidized to O2
carbon atoms (in oxidized state in CO2) get reduced to carbohydrate and water
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59
Q

what do ‘light’ reactions do

A

convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and and the reduced electron carrier NADPH + H+

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60
Q

what do ‘dark’ reactions (calvin-benson cycle) do

A

CO2 and ATP plus NADPH + H+ produced in the light reactions are used in the Calvin-Benson cycle to produce sugars

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61
Q

what carries the electron between the oxidation and reduction reactions

A

NADP+

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62
Q

2 main pathways for photosynthesis process

A

light reactions and light-independent reactions (dark reactions/calvin-benson cycle)

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63
Q

why do even the dark reactions stop in the dark

A

ATP synthesis and NADP+ reduction require light

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64
Q

what is a granum

A

stack of thylakoids

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65
Q

what is the fluid in a chloroplast

A

stroma

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66
Q

what is chlorophyll where is it located in the chloroplast

A

photosynthetic pigment; in the thylakoids

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67
Q

how does photosynthesis work? (basic flow)

10.3

A
  1. light strikes chlorophyll embedded in the thylakoid membrane
  2. makes ATP through chemiosmosis and reduces NADP+
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68
Q

why do the ‘dark’ reactions stop in the dark

A

calvin benson cycle needs ATP and NADP from the light reactions

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69
Q

3 properties of light

A
  1. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation
  2. Exists as photons which exhibit wave-like properties
  3. Energy content of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light
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70
Q

equations for light

A

c (speed of light) = vlambda (frequencywavelength)
E (energy of a photon) = h(plancks constant)*v
E = c/lambda

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71
Q

what 3 things can happen when a photon meets a molecule?

A
  1. the photon may bounce off the molecule and be scattered or reflected
  2. the photon may pass through the molecule - transmitted
  3. photon may be absorbed by the molecule, adding energy
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72
Q

what happens when a molecule acquires the energy of a a proton

A

it is raised from a ground state (lower energy) to an excited state (higher energy)

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73
Q

wavelengths with most energy

A

shorter wavelengths (gamma)

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74
Q

waves from shortest wavelength to longest

A

gamma – radio

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75
Q

what is the difference in free energy between the molecule’s excited state and its ground state

A

approximately that of the free energy of the absorbed photon

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76
Q

what does the increase in energy from an absorbed photon do and how does it affect stability

A

boosts one of the electrons in the molecule into a shell farther from its nucleus - held less firmly, making the molecule unstable and chemically reactive

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77
Q

how does fluorescence work?

A

t

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78
Q

what is a pigment

A

molecules that absorb wavelengths in the visible spectrum

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79
Q

what color light does chlorophyll absorb

A

blue and red (so we see green)

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80
Q

what is an absorption spectrum

A

plot of light absorbed by a purified pigment against wavelength

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81
Q

what is an action spectrum

A

plot of the rate of photosynthesis carried out by an organism against the wavelengths of light to which it is exposed

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82
Q

4 steps to determining an action spectrum

A
  1. place organism in a closed container
  2. expose it to light of a certain wavelength for a period of time
  3. measure the rate of photosynthesis by the amount of O2 released
  4. repeat with light of other wavelengths
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83
Q

which photons can an atom absorb

A

only those corresponding to the atom’s available electron energy levels

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84
Q

what is the major pigment used to drive the light reactions of oxygenic photosynthesis

A

chlorophyll a

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85
Q

chlorophyll a structure

A

ring structure with magnesium at center and a fatty acid (hydrocarbon) chain to anchor it in the thylakoid membrane

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86
Q

how do the other pigments fit in with chlorophyll a

A

there is a large complex called a photosystem spanning the thylakoid membrane and accessory pigments are arranged in light harvesting complexes (atenna systems)

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87
Q

what are some accessory pigments in chloroplasts

A

chlorphylls b, c, carotenoids, and phycobilins

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88
Q

what happens to light energy in the accessory pigments

A

it is released by one pigment molecule and absorbed by another

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89
Q

how is light energy passed from molecule to molecule in the satellite system

A

not as electrons but in the form of chemical energy called resonance

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90
Q

what happens to energy at the reaction center of the photosystem (chlorophyll)

A

absorbs energy and becomes excited when it returns to ground state, it doesn’t pass the energy on - it converts the absorbed light energy into chemical energy

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91
Q

what happens to chlorophyll (Chl*) (the reaction center) chemically to convert light energy to chemical energy

A
  • (Chl*) loses its excited electron in a redox reaction and becomes Chl+
  • as a result of the transfer of an electron, the chlorophyll gets oxidized, while the acceptor molecule is reduced
  • At a proton-pumping channel, proton translocation occurs resulting in ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis
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92
Q

what are accessory pigments

A

pigments that absorb photons in the region between blue and red carotenoids

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93
Q

difference between chlorophyll a and b

A

b is the the same as a, but it has a methyl instead of an aldehyde

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94
Q

what is resonance energy transfer

A

a vibrational energy transfer from one chlorophyll to another through the antenna system which increases the efficiency of the process

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95
Q

photosystem 1

A

reaction center contains a chlorophyll a (P700) - 700 nm wavelength absorption and passes excited electrons to NADP+, reducing it to NADPH

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96
Q

photosystem 2

A

reaction center contains a chlorophyll a (P680) - 680 nm wavelength absorption
requires more energetic photons than I
oxidizes water molecules and passes energized electrons through a series of carriers to produce ATP

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97
Q

what percent water is a human

A

60%

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98
Q

what fraction of total body water is ECF

A

1/3

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99
Q

distribution of ECF in the body

A

20% plasma and 80% interstitial fluid

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100
Q

tissue

A

cluster of multiple cells

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101
Q

organs

A

assemblages of tissues

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102
Q

4 kinds of tissues

A

epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous

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103
Q

types of tissues in organs

A

always has more than one of the 4 tissue types

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104
Q

what type of tissues in the outer layer of skin

A

epithelial cells

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105
Q

what do cells need to survive

A

nutrients, glucose, and ENERGY

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106
Q

what is the role of the digestive system

A

ensure food is properly broken down so we can extract nutrients

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107
Q

what do proteins get broken into

A

amino acids

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108
Q

what do carbohydrates get broken into

A

monosaccharides

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109
Q

what do lipids get broken into

A

fatty acids

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110
Q

what does the digestive system need to carry out its function

A

enzymes

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111
Q

purpose of blood vessels

A

delivery oxygen and nutrients (they are the highway)

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112
Q

how can blood flow and other functions go against gravity

A

heart/cardiovascular system

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113
Q

how many organ systems

A

11

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114
Q

what does the brain do

A

regulates everything to make sure it’s working properly

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115
Q

2 regulatory systems

A

endocrine and nervous system

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116
Q

what do systems do

A

ensure homeostasis

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117
Q

what is homeostasis

A

constant internal environment

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118
Q

what 4 things contribute to homeostasis

A

sodium levels, glucose levels, pH, temperature

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119
Q

3 components of homeostatic system

A

receptors, control center, effectors

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120
Q

what do receptors do to maintain homeostasis

A

Provide information about specific conditions (measures) (organ/cell/protein)

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121
Q

what does the control system do to maintain homeostasis

A

Evaluates the information from receptors - compares to Set point (tells what a particular value should be)

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122
Q

what does an effector do to contribute to homeostasis

A

Respond to restore the deviation from the set values of the internal environment

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123
Q

what temperature should our body be

A

98 degrees F

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124
Q

endotherm

A

regulate body temperature by generating metabolic heat and/or preventing heat loss
(All mammals and birds)

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125
Q

ectotherm

A

Depend on external heat sources to maintain body temperature

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126
Q

positive feedback

A

more change, then more changes

- e.g. breastfeeding - have baby, make milk, baby drinks milk, make more milk

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127
Q

negative feedback

A

change, then stops (most systems in body)

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128
Q

how do neurons communicate with each other and other cells

A

through electrical and chemical signals

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129
Q

what is the most abundant tissue in the body

A

muscle

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130
Q

3 types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

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131
Q

skeletal muscle

A

responsible for locomotion and other body movements

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132
Q

cardiac muscle

A

makes up the heart and is responsible for the beating of the heart and the pumping of blood

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133
Q

smooth muscle

A

makes up the walls of many hollow internal organs such as the gut, bladder, and blood vessels

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134
Q

how are the cells of connective tissue organized

A

dispersed in an extracellular matrix that the cells themselves secrete

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135
Q

dominant protein in the extracellular matrix

A

collagen

136
Q

arrangement of skeletal muscle cells

A

looks striped because of the regular arrangement of actin and myosin

137
Q

arrangement of cardiac muscle

A

individual cells are branched and form a strong structural meshwork

138
Q

arrangement of smooth muscle

A

actin and myosin filaments of smooth muscle are not regularly arranged so it doesn’t look striped

139
Q

neurons

A

ecode and conduct information as electrical signals

140
Q

composition of organs

A

epithelium and one or more other kinds of tissue

141
Q

why do endotherms generate heat

A

metabolic processes and working muscles are less efficient and more ‘leaky’ to ions so ions leak out and they have to expend energy to maintain the ion gradients, thus generating heat

142
Q

how do ectotherms regulate body temperature if they can’t do it with internal metabolic heat production

A

use behavior - e.g. basking in the sun, seeking shade

143
Q

what happens when you place a mouse and lizard in a room and decrease the temperature

A

mouse’s metabolic rate increases (more heat) while the lizard’s temperature decreases as the air temp decreases

144
Q

4 avenues of heat exchange

A

radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation

145
Q

radiation

A

heat moves from warmer objects to cooler via exchange of IR radiation (like a fire)

146
Q

convection

A

heat transfers to a surrounding medium such as air or water as that medium flows over the surface (e.g. windchill)

147
Q

conduction

A

heat transfers directly between 2 objects when they have contact (ice pack)

148
Q

evaporation

A

heat transfers away from a surface when water evaporates on that surface (sweating)

149
Q

Where are elastin fibers abundant?

A

Tissues that are regularly stretched - walls of lungs and large arteries

149
Q

Where are elastin fibers abundant?

A

Tissues that are regularly stretched - walls of lungs and large arteries

150
Q

3 types of connective tissue

A

Cartilage and bone; blood; adipose cells

151
Q

What do cartilage and bone do

A

Connective tissues that provide firm structural support

152
Q

What does blood consist of

A

Connective tissue consisting of cells dispersed in an extensive, liquid extracellular matrix, the blood plasma

153
Q

What do adipose cells do

A

Form loose connective tissue that stores lipids - adipose tissue (fat) is a major source of stored energy, cushions organs, and layers under the skin can provide a barrier to heat loss

154
Q

What do neurons do

A

Encode and conduct information as electrical signals; release chemical signals that are recieved by target cells

155
Q

Possible target cells for neurons

A

Other neurons, muscle cells, or cells that secrets hormones and other molecules& substances, such as saliva

156
Q

What do glial cells do

A

Provide a variety of support functions for neurons; do not generate electrical signals, but they can communicate info through the release of chemical signals

157
Q

Example of glial cell function

A

Creates a barrier between blood vessels and neural tissue that protects the nervous system from potentially harmful chemicals circulating in the blood

158
Q

When do proteins tend to denature

A

Above 45C

159
Q

Function of the nervous system

A

Informational system - encode, process, and store a wide variety of info from the external and internal environments and use the info to control and regulate physiological processes and behavioral actions of the organism

160
Q

What 2 types of cells enable the nervous system

A

Glial cells and nerve cells

161
Q

What does it mean for a neuron to be excitable

A

Can generate and transmit electrical signals

162
Q

What are action potentials

A

Electric signals generated by neurons

163
Q

4 general regions of neurons

A
  1. Dendrites
  2. Cell body
  3. Axon
  4. Axon terminals
164
Q

What do dendrites do

A

Receive information from other neurons

165
Q

What is the neuron cell body

A

Contains the nucleus and most cell organelles

166
Q

What happens to the info collected by dendrites

A

Integrated in the axon hillcock, which generates action potentials

167
Q

What does the axon do

A

Conducts action potentials away from the cell body

168
Q

What do axon terminals do

A

Synapse with a target cell

169
Q

What is the presynaptic cell

A

Originating cell body

170
Q

What is the postsynaptic cell

A

The receiving target cell

171
Q

What is the axon terminal

A

On the postsynaptic cell, where the axon divides into a spray of fine nerve endings and at the tip of each ending is a swelling called the axon terminal

172
Q

How fast can actions potentials travel

A

Up to 100 m/s

174
Q

what do axons do

A

carry information in the form of action potentials away from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell (away from soma)

175
Q

what forms of energy can synapses be

A

chemical or electrical

176
Q

electrical synapses

A

allow the action potential to pass directly between two neurons

177
Q

what form are synapses in most vertebrets

A

chemical

178
Q

how do chemical synapses work

A

a space about 25 nm wide separates the pre and post synaptic membranes and an action potential arriving at the axon terminal causes it to release chemical messenger molecules (neurotransmitters) which diffuse and bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell

179
Q

what is axon hillock

A

initial branching of axon

180
Q

what protein structures are in axons

A

microtubules for transport

181
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

glia that wrap around the axons of neurons, covering them with concentric layers of insulating plasma membrane

182
Q

schwann cells

A

glia outside the brain and spinal cord that wrap axons with concentric layers of insulating plasma membrane

183
Q

myelin

A

covering produced by oligodendrocytes and scwann cells that give many parts of the nervous system a glistening white appearance; insulating layers of plasma membrane

184
Q

example of demyelineating disease and effects

A

multiple sclerosis - autoimmune disease which produces antibodies to proteins in myelin in the brain and spinal cord resulting in damage to the nervous system; commonly results in motor impairment
guillain-barre - result of severe infection which attacks myelin outside the brain and spinal cord

185
Q

what are nodes of ranevier

A

gaps in myelin sheath along axon

186
Q

astrocytes

A

contribute the blood-brain barrier; permeable to fat soluble substances

187
Q

tripartite synapse

A

idea that synapses include pre and postsynaptic neurons and connections from astrocytes

188
Q

feature common to all neurons

A

all process information in the form of action potentials; all excitable; always have lots of branches (no matter classification) because sending and receiving so much info)

189
Q

afferent neurons

A

send information to the central nervous system; aka sensory neurons; info comes from specialized sensory cells that convert various stimuli into action potentials

190
Q

interneurons

A

connect nuerons within the CNS; integrate and store information and communicate between afferent and efferent neurons

191
Q

efferent neurons

A

send info from the CNS; carry commands to phsyiological and behavioral effectors like muscles and glands

192
Q

3 classifications of neurons based on function

A

sensory, inetrneurons, and motor neurons

193
Q

3 classification of neurons based on structure

A

multipolar, bipolar, unipolar

194
Q

multipolar neurons

A

one cell body with many branches; one axon and many dendrites; most common type of neuron; motor neurons and interneurons; found in the brain and spinal cord

195
Q

bipolar neurons

A

have 2 extensions; found in ears, nose, and eyes; sensory neurons

196
Q

unipolar neurons

A

one branch extension from the cell body; sensory neurons (e.g. sense of touch)

197
Q

do neurons work in seclusion

A

no, always as a network

198
Q

synapse

A

junction between neurons

199
Q

axil somatic

A

axon terminals synapsing on cell soma (cell body)

200
Q

axil dendritic

A

axon terminals synapsing with dendrites of other neurons

201
Q

what is the ‘wire’ which moves ions through our body to generate current

A

cell plasma membranes

202
Q

what causes electricity in our body

A

movement of ions across membranes

203
Q

what is diffusion

A

movement of ions from high conecentration to low concentration without the expendtiture of energy

204
Q

why can’t ions move through the lipid membrane and how do they overcome this

A

they are charged so move through ion channels

205
Q

2 requirements for diffusion to occur and which is always there

A
  1. driving force (i.e. concentration gradient) – always there
  2. permeability to move – not always there
206
Q

range of mV for an action potential

A

-70 – +30

207
Q

what is the threshold in mV for a potential to take off

A

-55

208
Q

where does an action potential graph come from

A

change in voltage over change in time

209
Q

about how long does an action potential take

A

4 msec

210
Q

what occurs instead of an action potential in the the cell body and dendrites

A

a slight fluctuation in electrical activity or a graded potential

211
Q

what occurs at an axon and axon hillock

A

major fluctuations which is an action potential and neurotransmitter release where it goes from electrical signal to chemical

212
Q

what causes the potential difference in neurons

A

difference in net charge across the plasma membrane

213
Q

charges inside cell vs outside

A

inside is more negative

214
Q

resting membrane potential

A

-70 mV

215
Q

why don’t we want equilibrium in neurons

A

we will lose the driving force

216
Q

how big is the concentration gradient usually

A

at least 30 fold

217
Q

ions on either side of neural plasma membrane

A

Na+ more outside and K+ more inside

218
Q

what order is the amount of charges on

A

10^12

219
Q

how to increase the rate of diffusion

A

increase the concentration difference

220
Q

how do Na+ and K+ get from outside to inside and vice versa?

A

sodium leak channels and potassium leak channels – leaks constantly (small amounts of Na in and small amounts of K out)

221
Q

in spite of slow rate of diffusion, how else to prevent equilibrium from occuring

A

Na/K pump

222
Q

what is a Na/K pump

A

active transport (requires ATP) - for 1 ATP pumps 2K in and 3Na out to maintain the concentration gradient

223
Q

which ion channel is more permeable

A

K ion channel

224
Q

why do scientists use squid to study neurons

A

squid neurons are very large in size so easier to study

225
Q

what is depolarization

A

membrane becoming less negative than resting potential (Na entering a neuron);

226
Q

what is repolarization

A

membrane returning to original state from depolarization or hyperpolarization

227
Q

what is hyperpolarization

A

becoming more negative than resting potential (K leaves a neuron)

228
Q

is any polarization constant?

A

no, dynamic state of going back and forth

229
Q

threshold of an action potential

A

-50 - -55mV

230
Q

what gets an action potential to the threshold

A

ionic permeability - Na and K leak channels

231
Q

what does an action potential do to polarization?

A

depolarizes, repolarizes, and hyperpolarizes

232
Q

what do the Na and K leak channels trigger

A

the opening of voltage gated Na channels and voltage gated K channels

233
Q

why is the VGSC unique?

A

doesn’t have binary state - can be open, closed, or inactivated (during refractory period)

234
Q

when is the VGSC closed

A

at resting potential (-70mV)

235
Q

when is the VGSC open

A

-55mV to +30 mV (threshold to peak)

236
Q

when is the VGSC inactivated

A

+30 mV to -70mV (peak to resting)

237
Q

what is the VGSC

A

voltage gated sodium channel
integral protein embedded in membrane
protein channel that is specific to sodium and opens when it reaches a voltage threshold

238
Q

how does the inactivation state of the VGSC work?

A

it is closed and incapable of opening

239
Q

what is the voltage gated potassium channel?

A

VGPC

typical on/off binary

240
Q

when is the VGPC open

A

+30 to -80mV; from peak to after hyperpolarization

241
Q

when is the VGPC closed

A

resting (-70 mV) to +30 mV; delayed opening triggered at threshold, but doesn’t open until peak

242
Q

are the VGPC/SC or the K/Na leak channels more permeable?

A

VGPC/SC are waaayyyyyy more permeable – leak channels are insignificant in comparison

243
Q

steps of the action potential

A
  1. at rest: At rest both VGSC and VGKC are closed
  2. When threshold is reached, the VGSC are triggered to open but VGKC are still closed
  3. Sodium ions flow through the VGSC causing the membrane to be depolarized
  4. Once the membrane reaches +30 mV the VGSC inactivate blocking the flow of sodium ions
  5. VGKC open causing potassium ions to flow out and repolarize the membrane
  6. More potassium ions flow out so Further repolarization of the membrane
  7. Membrane hyperpolarizes, refractory period occurs
    and VGKC start to close
  8. Both voltage gated channels are closed and membrane comes back to resting potential
244
Q

what do the leak channels do

A

drive voltage to threshold point

245
Q

what happens at threshold

A

goes from slow depolarization to fast depolarization

246
Q

why is the refractory period of VGSC important?

A

prevents sodium (causes depolarization) from coming in at the same time K is leaving (causes repolarization) because then nothing would happen

247
Q

what does the puffer fish release and what does it do

A

toxin (TTX - tetrodotoxin) which blocks VG channels so neurons can’t communicate anymore

248
Q

uses for TTX

A

blocks VGCs and inhibits pain receptors (novocaine and other local anesthetics)

249
Q

where does an action potential start

A

at the axon hillock

250
Q

how does the action potential get propogated along to the end of the presynaptic neuron?

A

saltatory conductance – because of the nodes of ranvier on the myelin where the VGSC can cluster and the positive charges repel each other to the next node and continue the depolarization along the axon

251
Q

why is saltatory conductance unidirectional if repulsion occurs in all directions

A

because VGSC are inactivated - have to close before they can open again so it can only go one way

252
Q

what happens in the gap between the pre and post synaptic neuron

A
  1. depolarization of the action potential stimulates the voltage gated calcium channels to open
  2. that causes the mobilization of the vesicles containing neurotransmitters
  3. neurotransmitters are released by exocytosis
  4. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
  5. Depolarization occurs causing series of events that leads to action potential in the postsynaptic neuron
  6. Neurotransmitter is broken down
253
Q

what causes depolarization during the synapse

A

neurotransmitters are ligands so the ligand gated ion channels let ions go through causing
depolarization

254
Q

main function of interneurons

A

processing

255
Q

main function of efferent neurons

A

motor

256
Q

where are sensory neurons located

A

part on CNS and part on PNS

257
Q

which neurons exist entirely on CNS

A

interneurons

258
Q

cell surface receptor characteristics

A

water soluble
peptides/proteins
catecholamines

259
Q

intracellular receptor characteristics

A

lipid soluble

steroid hormones

260
Q

what is the endocrine system composed of and what types of activities does it regulate

A

composed of all endocrine glands located throughout the body

regulates activities that require duration, not speed

261
Q

types of hormones (3)

A

peptide, amine, steroid

262
Q

peptide hormones

A

most common type (e.g. insulin)

secreted by hypothalamus, anterior, posterior pituitary gland, pancreas, parathyroid

263
Q

amine hormones

A

derived from tyrosine

includes the thyroid, adrenal medulla (adrenal medullary secretes catecholamines)

264
Q

steroid hormones

A

cholesterol precursors, secreted by adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes

265
Q

mechanisms of action for hydrophilic peptides/catecholamines

A

poorly soluble in lipids so need cell surface receptors
produce a secondary messenger (cAMP) to amplify the signal
can alter cell permeability by opening/closing certain channels

266
Q

mechanisms of action for lipophillic hormones

A

can readily cross lipid bilayer so bind to intracellular receptors
activate transcription of certain genes –> transcription factor –> proteins
has longer lasting effects

267
Q

example of a lipophillic hormone and action

A

epinephrine – produced by adrenal medulla (catacholamine), is released during times of stress, and causes contraction of smooth muscle, relaxtion of respiratory airway smooth muscle, breaks down glycogen to glucose in the liver, redircets blood flow to essential body parts

268
Q

types of cell surface receptors

A

ligand gated channels, G-protein linked receptors, enzyme linked receptors

269
Q

ligand gated channel example

A

nicotinic Ach receptor found in the neuromuscular junction
linked to an ion channel (usually sodium) and ion channel opens when the ligand binds
causes depolarization which propogates the signal and leads to excitation of muscle

270
Q

enzyme linked receptor example

A

enzyme binds to insulin receptor which dimerizes and autophosphorylates into the insulin receptor substrate which causes a cellular response

271
Q

when/where does the glycogenolytic cascade occur and what stimulates it

A

when breaking down glycogen to get glucose (occurs in the liver) and is stimulated by epinephrine

272
Q

how does the glycogenolytic cascade work

A

epinephrine binds to a GPCR on the ER and the alpha GTP releases and goes to adenylcycic aglaces which converts ATP to cAMP (inactivates glycogen synthesis) and inactive pka to active PKA which activates phosphorylate kinase which turns glycogen into glucose-1-pyrones which gets converted to glucose and is released from the cell

273
Q

how is an action potential “all or none”

A

positive feed-back mechanism: if membrane is depolarized slightly, some voltage gated Na channels open which depolarizes it more, opening more channels, and so on –> generates action potential

274
Q

how is an action potential self-regenerating

A

spreads by local current flow to the adjacent regions and so on down the length of the axon; jumping along ndoes of ranvier due to positive repulsion

275
Q

NONCYCLIC ELECTRON TRANSPORT

A

Uses photosystems I and II to produce NADPH + H+ together with ATP
Electrons from H2O replenish chlorophyll molecules which gave up electrons
O2 is a by-product of the breakdown of H2O

276
Q

why is cyclic electron transport necessary

A

if the noncyclic was the only light reaction, there may not be sufficient ATP for carbon fixation

277
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do

A

“Rest and digest” – housekeeping

277
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do

A

“Rest and digest” – housekeeping

278
Q

what produces the csf

A

group of cells and blood vessels collectively known as the choroid plexus

278
Q

How many types of glial cell

A

6

279
Q

how does the csf circulate

A

from the lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramen to the third ventricle

It then goes to the fourth ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct

From the fourth ventricle it goes to the spinal cord via the central canal

279
Q

Most abundant glial cells

A

Astrocytes

280
Q

Function of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

A
  • Bathes the brain
  • Acts as a shock absorber
  • Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products
280
Q

What do astrocytes do

A

Link neurons to adjacent blood vessels and help maintain chemical consistency of cell

281
Q

how many lobes make up the brain

A

5

281
Q

What do microglial cells do

A

Clean and remove unwanted debris/material from around neurons; similar to immune cells

282
Q

name 4 lobes

A

frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital

282
Q

What do ependymal cells do

A

Produce cerebrospinal fluid

283
Q

function of frontal lobe

A

somatic movement (skeletal muscle movement)

283
Q

What does csf do

A

Bathes and surrounds brain for protection

284
Q

function of parietal lobe

A

sense of touch, sensation

284
Q

Avg size of brain

A

1350 - 1400 g

285
Q

function of temporal lobe

A

hearing; vision - visual association area for facial

recognition, olfaction

285
Q

Function of csf

A

Acts as shock absorber from hard skull

286
Q

function of occipital lobe

A

seeing, vision

286
Q

What are ventricles

A

C-shaped vesicles which have ependymal cells and produce& circulate csf

287
Q

what does it mean for the brain to be contralateral

A

right side of brain controls left side of body and left side of brain controls right side of body

287
Q

How many ventricles

A

4

288
Q

4 areas of the frontal lobe

A

premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, brocas area, prefrontal association cortex

288
Q

Names of ventricles

A

Right lateral ventricle, left lateral ventricle, third ventricle, fourth ventricle

289
Q

primary motor cortex

A

area responsible for initiating skeletal muscle motor movement (executing movement)

289
Q

What does the interventricular foramen do

A

Connect right and left ventricles

290
Q

premotor cortex

A

area of brain where you plan movement (planning movement); makes sure nothing crashes into each other and goes where it’s supposed to

290
Q

What is the cerebral aqueduct

A

Connects 3rd and 4th ventricle

291
Q

Prefrontal association cortex

A

complex tasks and cognitive functions - higher order thinking; e.g favorite 20 shows in alphabetical order or mathmatical equations

291
Q

What is the central canal

A

Comes after the 4th ventricle and sends csf to the spinal cord and around the brain

292
Q

Brocas area

A

responsible for speech initiation and execution of voice

293
Q

nickname of primary motor cortex

A

motor homonculus

294
Q

2 areas of parietal lobe

A

Somatosensory cortex, Wernickes

295
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

spacial discrimination
— precise, can tell where movement or sensation came from; e.g. knowing where right hand is; Conscious awareness of general somatic senses

296
Q

Wernickes

A

Overlaps in temporal lobe; responsible for speech comprehension

297
Q

nickname of Somatosensory Cortex

A

sensory humonculus

298
Q

area of occipetal lobe

A

visual cortex

299
Q

4 major components of the brain

A

cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, brain stem

300
Q

thalamus

A
  • relay center
  • called this because all senses go here (except sense of smell - has a different pathway)
  • Crude awareness of sensation
  • Motor control
    e. g. hearing goes to thalamus and then to temporal lobe
301
Q

hypothalamus

A

(hypo means below)

  • just under thalamus
  • regulatory center - recognizes when homeostasis has been affected and sends signals to correct
  • works as a receptor and a control center
  • temperature control, urine, fullness sensors
  • endocrine role: controls hormones
  • internal clock sleep/wake center
  • formation of memory
302
Q

cerebellum

A

“small brain”
- coordinate movement (in addition to frontal lobe and thalamus)
- Maintenance of balance
- Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
cerebellum is ipsilateral

303
Q

what is ipsilateral

A

same side e.g. right side of cerebellum controls right side of body

304
Q

3 parts of brain contributing to movement

A

cerebellum, frontal lobe, and thalamus

305
Q

brain stem

A

“gateway to brain”
– Origin of majority of peripheral cranial
nerves
– Control centers for digestive, respiratory, and cardiovascular centers
– Equilibrium and posture
– Integration of inputs from spinal cord
e.g. sets heart rate; when to breathe

306
Q

3 types of damage to the brain

A

• Trauma • Stroke • Seizure

307
Q

trauma

A

blow to the head (falling from high place, car accident, etc)

308
Q

stroke

A

blood vessels that supply the brain rupture or get blocked (cerebral vascular accident)

309
Q

seizure

A

brain starts to fire uncontrollably - poorly understood as to root cause

310
Q

trauma to frontal lobe

A

= paralysis, but could still feel because parietal lobe is not affected

311
Q

damage to brain stem

A

universal damage

312
Q

how is the brain bilateral

A

one on each side, except for speech (brocas and wernickes are only on left hemisphere), speak from our left side, right is for emotional aspect of speech - not for initiation

313
Q

2 types of aphasia

A
  • Wernicke􏱟s aphasia

* Brocca􏱟s aphasia

314
Q

• Wernicke􏱟s aphasia

A

damage to wernicke they can speak but they can’t make sense of what they’re saying - words come out normally but don’t make sense

315
Q

• Brocca􏱟s aphasia

A

broccas is where they can understand but they can’t speak

316
Q

Right Parietal Lobe Damage

A

• Contralateral neglect syndrome

317
Q

• Contralateral neglect syndrome

A

unconventional condition, we don’t understand
damage to right parietal lobe - would think they would lose sensation on left side, but actually they just lose interest in the left side (would only shave right side of face, eat only right half of plate, neglect left)

318
Q

Split-Brain Patient

A

sometimes have to split corpus callosum to prevent disease to spread from one side to another (e.g. seizures)

seem normal, but left side doesn’t know what right side is doing

319
Q

what is the corpus callosum

A

connects left and right side

320
Q

reason to severe corpus callosum

A

seizures tend to spread so if nothing else works, they have to sever the corpus callosum to prevent the seizures from spreading from left to right or vice versa

321
Q

what happens when you ask a split brain patient to touch objects with hands and why

A

can feel it with left hand but can’t say it

have them touch with right hand and can figure it out

touch with left hand, info goes to right hemisphere — but corpus collosum is blocked, so it can’t make it to the speech side (left) of the brain

with right hand it goes straight to the speech side (left hemisphere)

LS 2 (2 decks)

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