LSAT Short Argument - Symbolizing (If-then and Most-Dude) and GENERAL TIPS

Question 1

When and how to symbolize in a Short Argument?

If-Then style (hypotheticals)

and

Most-Dude style (known facts)

and

Combo: get if-thens on page, then if applicable, draw Dude and attach “facts” to him that you deduce from the if-thens you have on the page already!

Answer 1

Q type alone does not tell you whether to symbolize.

• Often (but usually not): Assumption and Inference Qs can be symbolized
• To a lesser degree, often (but usually not) Parallel Flaw (which is assumption) and STR-Parallel Reasoning can be symbolized.
• Principle Above can often be symbolized, very similar to Inference

Must decide if you want to symbolize as you read the argument. It can help you find ACs quickly, and eliminate ACs that don’t even deal with the correct entities.

Symbolizing Short Arg opportunities happen maybe 4 - 15 times per exam.

Analogy flaws? rarely symbolize

Two things as a combination to act together: Do you have if-then stmts in the arg, and can you chain/branch them together??

You must see Definite or Absolute Language, (can be subtle!) because this kind of language will tell you that you can make an if-then stmt (synonyms for “if” = each, anyone, every, all, etc., see the other flashcards!) and note “any other” means if not

—side note: in addition to drawing If-Then constructions with arrows when you see Definite/Absolute Language, remember for non-hypotheticals, for facts, you can also have Most/Dude constructions with stick dudes, percentages, circles, ~ for negs, and “and” signs when you see Percentage language like most, some, minority, rarely, usually etc—

AND when you see Repeated Terms in the argument because that indicates you can CHAIN if/then stmts or BRANCH if-then stmts

May leave some floating entitites, and may not need to make contrapositive, and that is ok. Still takes you strongly to ACs. If you have a 4MBF, it may not be so clean when taking symbols to ACs.

**Symbolizing thought issue: If you see something indicating opinion (especially SHOULD, BELIEVE, THINK, INTENT) do a DOUBLE UNDERLINE**

**Remember TMs see Trigger in if-then as “sufficient term” and Result as “necessary term” – this is useful for the purposes of symbolizing short arguments.**

See video at 33:10 of Argument Lesson 9 showing how a Jack in the Beanstalk passage for an INFERENCE question would be best symbolized as a giant IF-THEN stmt, and after that, also MOST-DUDE construction started from the final sentence that gets usefully built out with “and” symbols of facts that you can deduce from the “tall” term in the IF-THEN STMT. The resulting MOST-DUDE construction would be useful to bring to ACs.

Question 2

What is a No Construction, why do we care? See pg 195

Answer 2

It gives us an IF ONE THEN NOT THE OTHER relationship. If you wish to symbolize, make TRIGGER POSITVE and RESULT NEG. Basically make the “no” word an if and throw ~ on the result.

nobody who flies kites is afraid, if flies kites –> ~afraid

nothing that grows apples is A, if grows apples –> ~A

it is impossible to have a cheap superconductor, if superconductor –> ~cheap

no xxx are A

cannot be (?)

(different from NOT ALL (in which case you translate to a Some Are Not, put a stick figure to indicate a some qualifier, throw a tilde on the target characterstic)) and other NOT constructions)

these are “no constructions” (remember “if you’re one, you’re not the other” is the no mantra, not both construction…that is totally different from “if you’re NOT one, then I am the other” because that is a FALSE contra. Remember to make the first term positive)

Question 3

How to symbolize common verbs in args like BE, CAN, MUST, HAVE, SAY, APPEAR, etc. that are located right after a subject?

I.e. how to symbolize FINITE verbs, as opposed to non-finite verbs (gerunds, infinitives, participles)

Answer 3

This question basically means, how do you symbolize FINITE verbs? Answer: it depends what is going on with the subject to which the FINITE VERB is referring.

You can have if-then style symbolizing, most style symbolizing, and dude style symbolizing, or a combo. See attached pic.

Question 4

In an assumption based Q, what if you have more than one piece of evidence (i.e. E1 language, E2 language, etc) along with the conclusion, not just a simple E–>C logic for the entire argument?

Answer 4

If you have more than one stmt of evidence, look for common entitites in both pieces of evidence E1 and E2. Look for if-then and most-dude constructions.

You will need to build a Logical Pathway. Logical Pathway is longest path of logic from First point of Conclusion to End point of conclusion, with gaps to be filled in with evidence and assumptions.. Exception: If you have Socrates terms in the form of Dude Constructions, then the Conclusion is NOT IF THEN FORMAT and cannot be broken apart. So you must first identify and break apart an Initial Assumption, which is an IF-THEN STMT like this:

1a. Identify E1 as the evidence containing common Socrates term wrt Conclusion (aka Socrates term).

1b. Identify E2 as the evidence containing common term wrt Conclusion, AND contain common term with E1!

2. FIRST MAKE an INITIAL ASSUMPTION that takes you from one piece of evidence (E1) to the Conclusion. Important that E1 contains common Socrates term wrt Conclusion!

3. Then plug E2 to take you from somewhere within inside of the INITIAL ASSUMPTION to the Conclusion

4.. THEN create/invent BIG ARROW ASSUMPTION (as a smaller link within that INITIAL ASSUMPTION that takes you from E1 to E2) – that BIG ARROW ASSUMPTION is now your ARGUMENT ASSUMPTION

Think about it! If you only have one piece of evidence, then your Initial Assumption is your overall ARGUMENT ASSUMPTION

See attached – again remember that If you don’t have Socrates terms in the form of Dude Constructions you will break apart conclusion first.

NOTE the correct AC will involve terms ONLY a part of the assumption you deduce! E.g. if you assumption involves TIppl and DSD, look for those 2 terms and no more in your AC

Question 5

How do you symbolize the argument in Assumption Based Questions?

Example: All apples are fruit, and gorillas like all kinds of fruit. Therefore apples must be nutritious.

Answer 5

The Argument:

• Separate Evidence in argument from Conclusion, then “Break Apart” the conclusion. Note there that these are if-then stmts because All is like “if” (except: don’t break apart Conclusion to parallel flaw, nor parallel reasoning (which is not assumption, based, but still fyi))

E: Apples –> Fruit

Fruit–> Gorillas Like

C: Apples –> Nutritious (note Nutritious is a new term in the C!)

• Identify missing link between E and C, and the missing link is your assumption: In this case nutritious is a new term introduced the C that was not present in the E. So you need to create made of existing term in E and new term in C. So…

A: Gorillas Like –> Nutritious

• ID Common Flaw from Break Apart
• Predict the Assumption ACs!
• Common Flaw - find AC that restates your assumption or states common flaw
• “Break Apart” for the ACs now - find AC that RESTATES the assumption

Question 6

Causal language:

1. What should you think to yourself if you see Causal language (see your causal words flash card) in Conclusion of argument of an assumption based question?
2. How do you symbolize Causal language?

Answer 6

Think 3 things:

• I have an 85% chance that this argument has CORRELATION CAUSATION flaw.
• The evidence in the argument is probably a bunch of correlations, so I can read evidence fast!
• TMs love to use Alt Explanation (and less frequently, reverse causality ACs) for correlation causation WEAKEN question.

Symbolize causation with a C arrow! For example, the word effective is a causal word, so symbolize “This shows that magnetic fields are probably effective at reducing back pain” as the attached.

*C arrow is like a subset of if-then. But not all if-then are causal situations.

*the word “because” can serve as a Conclusion/Evidence identifier, but it can also serve as causal language when it is NOT a Conclusion Identifier. Just be careful with context (see page 149).

*note if you have an anti-causal language situation (XXX generally is NOT because of, or not the reason of YYY), draw the C arrow crossed out to symbolize, but know it is NOT AN CORR_CAUS flaw

Question 7

How do you symbolize Inference Based Questions?

Answer 7

The Argument: Note that passages of Inference Based questions don’t have arguments with evidence and conclusion. But don’t confuse if-then stmts symbolized within an Inference question with an overall E –> C symbolization that is present in

• Do NOT separate E from C (don’t even identify C!)
• Chain and branch all if-thens that will combine (some if-thens won’t)
• Draw “The Dude” to rep facts which are not if-then
• Take what you know from if-thens and apply to The Dude
• Do NOT try to predict the answer AC!
• ACs that contain an if-then stmt - the if-then MUST match at least part of the if-then from the argument
• ACs that contain a fact – the fact MUST match at least part of a fact from the Argument

Question 8

How do you symbolize Parallel Reasoning and Parallel Flaw?

Answer 8

Parallel Reasoning and Parallel Flaw

The Argument:

• Always separate E from C - important bc looking for logical pathway
• Do not insert inferences into your symbolization
• Don’t break apart conclusion and never try to symbolize an assumption in PF and PR questions. Symbolizing assumptions may work in other Assumption-Based Qs but not PF and PR (which is STR)
• Correct AC for PF will not state the assumption from the main argument. It will state an assumption that is structurally similar to it (hence PARALLEL)

ACs:

• Symbolization of correct AC will ***look*** almost identical to symbolization from main argument

Question 9

Each, any, every, all mean what?

Answer 9

if

i.e. element of if-then stmt you can symbolize XXX –> YYY

And when do you want to symbolize argument? Absolute language and repeated terms.

• anyone* also means if
• when* also means if

Question 10

Cows are the only animals that moo

Answer 10

M –> C

(note “the only…are” behaves like a modifier referring to cow, so you point the arrow at cow. This is different than “only” without “the” or “are” in which case the “only” or “only if” is probably modifying a word or clause immediately after it, so you would point the arrow at that word or clause)

“the only” creates a “then” arrow pointing at results, which is group being singled out

Question 11

The only animals that moo are cows

Answer 11

M–>C

(note “the only…are” behaves like a modifier referring to cow, so you point the arrow at cow. This is different than “only” without “the” or “are” in which case the “only” or “only if” is probably modifying a word or clause immediately after it, so you would point the arrow at that word or clause)

Question 12

Flour is required to make bread

Answer 12

B–>F note “is required” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 13

Oxygen is essential for life

Answer 13

L–>O note “is essential” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 14

Cupcakes require sprinkles

Answer 14

C–>S note “require” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Note that “is required” is totally different than “require” or requires” because it switches what is being referred to

Question 15

Lifeguards must pass a swimming test

Answer 15

L–>ST note “must xxxx” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 16

Dogs depend on human companionship

Answer 16

D–> HC note “depend on” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 17

Birds cannot live with cats

Answer 17

B–> ~C note “cannot xxxx” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 18

Moms always worry about their kids

Answer 18

M –> WK

note “always” refers to necessary component, and LSAT considers Trigger Sufficient –> Result Necessary

Question 19

No men are butterflies

Answer 19

M–> ~B B–>~M simply “not both”

nobody, nothing, none, no xxx (different from NOT ALL and other NOT constructions) are “no constructions” (remember “if you’re one, you’re not the other” is the no mantra, not both construction…that is totally different from “if you’re NOT one, then I am the other” because that is a FALSE contra. Remember to make the first term positive)

Question 20

Nobody who flies kites is afraid of lightning

Answer 20

F–> ~L L–>~F simply “not both”

nobody, nothing, none, no xxx (different from NOT ALL and other NOT constructions) are “no constructions” (remember “if you’re one, you’re not the other” is the no mantra, not both construction…that is totally different from “if you’re NOT one, then I am the other” because that is a FALSE contra. Remember to make the first term positive)

Question 21

Nothing that grows apples is dead

Answer 21

A–> ~D D–>~A simply “not both”

nobody, nothing, none, no xxx (different from NOT ALL and other NOT constructions) are “no constructions” (remember “if you’re one, you’re not the other” is the no mantra, not both construction…that is totally different from “if you’re NOT one, then I am the other” because that is a FALSE contra. Remember to make the first term positive)

Question 22

How do you symbolize Principle Above?

Answer 22

Principle Above symbolization is very similar to Inference symbolization

The Argument:

• Do not separate E from C. The argument in PA may not even have a conclusion!
• Chain and Branch all facts that will combine
• Draw the DUDE to rep facts that are not if-then stmnts
• Don’t forget to what you know from APPLY if-then stmts to the DUDE
• Do not try to predict answer

ACs:

• ACs that contain if-thens: The if-then in the AC must match the if-then symbolization from the argument
• ACs that contain an evidence to conclusion flow:
  
  • E part of AC must match TRIGGER of if-then in argument.
  • C part of the AC must match results of if-then in argument.

Question 23

either = without = unless

Answer 23

if not

Question 24

had

Answer 24

if

??? not sure on this

Question 25

otherwise

Answer 25

if not (prev thought)

Question 26

cows are THE ONLY animals that moo

Answer 26

M –> C usually ONLY without THE will refer to RESULT right after “only” but the word the creates a reference to a result elsewhere, in this case “cows”

Question 27

Symbolize this Inference Passage for purposes of taking to the ACs:

Any electrician is capable of configuring circuits, and only electricians with high dexterity skills can have the capacity to work on the fragile electrical systems of today’s computerized automobiles. Furthermore, this capacity requires an acute attention to detail that most people do not possess.

Answer 27

Important to break up the term EDHS into E and HDS to allow the connection of E with the other E of E–>CCC from previous clause

Question 28

How can 100% words be symbolized?

Answer 28

with if-then stmts

Question 29

any other

Answer 29

if not

Question 30

What 4 types of assumption flaws within arguments can frequently be symbolized?

Answer 30

Confusion of sufficient and necessary

Assuming the Trigger

Concept Shift

Degree/Dichotomy (a dichotomy is often an if-then stmt)

Calling All Cool Dads

Question 31

but = and

Answer 31

in games, but = and

not so in Reading Comp or ARguments

Question 32

When argument is like:

Principle: xxx

Application: xxx

Answer 32

Usually the Principle will have EVIDENCE in the form of if-then stmt. Probably no conclusion in Principle.

Usually the Application will be EVIDENCE and CONCLUSION

Question 33

When you are looking for an AC that WEAKENS a particular if-then stmt, say for example an assumption you deduced is in if-then form, what are you looking for in correct AC?

Answer 33

You are looking for an AC that represents the same IF but a FALSE RESULT(see PT 53.1.18 Sales person and strong client base)

Question 34

Why can there be a surprsing correct answer choice for what appears to be an obvious Confusion of Sufficient and Necessary assumption flaw?

Answer 34

Note that when you see a CSN flaw, you must be ready for an AC that illustrates or states some kind of reversal or confusion of SUFFICIENT and NECESSARY…

BUT very tricky, esp for STRENGTHEN or SUFFICIENT or where strong language is desired–since CSN is a subset of EXTREME CONCLUSION, you must also be ready for an extreme conclusion type AC that may be correct (e.g. look out for “no other reason” or “no other possibility” EMPHATIC langauge in ACs)

See PT 52.2.5 Byrne question. Very tricky. If answer choice C used the word “condition” instead of “assumption, C would be correct. But the way it’s worded does not make sense. So in fact B (the extreme conclusion AC) is correct.

Question 35

What do flow words do?? They live in ACs and basically identify your E and C!

Answer 35

by

bases on

(more exist! look at 178)

Question 36

Where have you seen the idea of of Trigger True, Result FALSE?

Answer 36

Trigger-True, Result FALSE is a great WEAKENER AC format for Concept Shift flawed assumptions.

Question 37

If you have ANTI-CONCLUSION work to do, and the original conclusion is an if-then stmt, how do you handle that? How do you change the symboliization of an if-then stmt to say that hey that orig stmt is not true?

For example, how would you symbolize the following?

People claim that all X are Y, but that claim is false.

Answer 37

Simply add to the result of the orig if-then (or one of the result branches) to

Orignal if-then is X–>Y

“but that claim is false”: X –> ~Y

Note not just the contrapositive of the original! That’s because the contra is true.

Question 38

How do you know quickly that something is non-evidence?

Answer 38

It may not be clear at first glance. But if it is not SUPPORTING the conclusion or supporting other evidence that supports the conclusion then you can throw it out.

Question 39

Should, or need to, in a conclusion, as in “the mosaics should have been left there…” or “you need to leave the mosaics there…” indicates what kind of symbolization and what kind of flaw?

Answer 39

“should” and “need to” are frequently a Comparison-Recommendation flaw indicator (as long as E and C are in the “same world”) and you know to symbolize with VERSUS SEE-SAW (e.g. leave mosaics on one end of seesaw, remove mosaics on other side of see saw).

Knowledge issue is the FACTOR for Comparison-Recommendation flaw tipping rec to one side (again, stay within scope of comparison!)

But the presence of “should” and “need to” in the conclusion does not guarantee it is a comp-rec flaw. E.g. 43.2.9 is a Bad Character flaw yet has should in conclusion.

Note TMs love to have ACs that are correct because they eliminate “other factors” subtly rather than explicitly adding to one side of the see saw

Question 40

How many times per exam will you have a Short Argument Inference Question that results in a Straight-Line Symbolization (A–>B–>C–>D, e.g.)

Answer 40

About once per exam!

Question 41

Causality in Conclusion, always do what??

Answer 41

Put that C arrow on page!!! Write it!

Question 42

What are main difference betweeen symbolizing Assumption Based arguments and Inference arguments?

Answer 42

in assumption, you symbolize E and C separately, at least at first (may link later on w/ assumptions etc)

In inference, you symbolize it all as a lump, don’t worry about E and C (there may not even be an E and C!).

After symbolizing Most Dude / stick figure statements, be sure to apply any If-then stmts to them!

Question 43

A if and only if B

A all and only B

A if but only if B

Answer 43

A–>B–>A

Question 44

How do you symbolize “a majority of the students who cry LSAT tears also are procrastinators?”

Answer 44

Circle the students crying LSAT tears as a whole, then add 51 note, not just a circle around students with LSAT tears outside circle (see attached)

CIRCLE THE KOALA FIRE (qualifier)

Keep the adjective qualifying the stuff which the MOST applies INSIDE the most circle

Question 45

good way to translate “not all” when symbolizing

good way to translate NOT “partly at fault”

Answer 45

“some are not” i.e. draw a stick man to symbolize “some” aka one, and put not on the result

Not at fault

Question 46

Three types of Only wrt Necessary terms in if-then stmt

Answer 46

3 types of only wrt to necessary terms

“only XXX…” (only refers to RESULT right after “only”, without a “the” in front of only) = draw then arrow over“only”

“the only YYY…” ( the word THE creates a reference to a result elsewhere, usually. The “necessary” term will be the unqualified term that is being singled out from the group via the qualifiers e.g. the only animals that moo are cows: M –> C because C is singled out from animals via moo qualifer) KEY: what is being SINGLED out from group is the thing you point arrow at

only a minority of dogs are hairless: Not referring to necessary statement: just adding emphasis to “a minority” aka merely

Question 47

Tricky situations for Dude constructions – remember to separate the dude from an item he/she is associated with, but with groups don’t draw dude

Answer 47

Emily’s water glass is wet: stick figure of Emily & WGW

The employees of K&L are the only people who vacuum joe’s car

JCarVAc–> KLvac (notice no stick figures for employees, they are a group)

Question 48

Drawing a Dude as a placeholder for some (or as a placeholder for some within some are not aka NOT ALL)

Answer 48

Some acts of securing mutual benefit are not moral actions:

stick figure SMB & ~MA

Not all texts are books:

stick figure T & ~B

Question 49

Usually the causality symbolization and if-then symbolization of a stmt are the same. But when can they be different?

Answer 49

Only harsh criticism will cause the person criticized to change.

See attached. It is ok!

But realize, if this is the Conclusion, the form that you use depends on the Evidence. If the Evidence is a bunch of Correlations, then you use the Causality form of the C. If the Evidence is a bunch of other if-then stmts, then you use the If-Then form of the C.

Question 50

Is a causal arrow an indication of an ABSOLUTE relationship aka A –C–> B means A always always always causes B?

How is this different from A–>B, a normal if-then stmt.

Answer 50

No, it means that A does cause B. Maybe not always, but it does. Causality is not absolute. It’s not universal. That’s the nature of causality. It simply increases likelihood.

But if-then arrows are absolute. If-then is absolute.

Causality is not ABSOLUTE

If-then is absolute.

Question 51

In an assumption-based question, when you see a term in an if-then stmt in the evidence, but the negative of that term in the conclusion…what should you think?

Answer 51

You should know you should do a contrapositive of the evidence to connect it to the conclusion for one big logic stmt that allows you to pinpoint assumption!

Question 52

If you have an if-then statment in evidence, what do you do if more evidence gives you a scenario where that trigger (or one of the triggers in the case that it is branched) is not true? What does that mean for the result?

Answer 52

When the trigger is not activated in the scenario, it doesn’t mean anything for the result! You basically ignore that trigger. For example if the prompt says “The message of the protestors was of an idea the government accepts expression of idea it supports”

See attached. It just means you ignore the bottom trigger (not accepts expression of idea it supports aka ~AEIS) because the government ACCEPTS and supports the idea so trigger not activated. It doesn’t mean anything about the result being true or false.

Question 53

How can a definition or a defined term be an if-then statment without all the other typical if-then identifiers?

Answer 53

Possible hidden if-then: if the you have a definition in the evidence, this could very well be an if-then stmt in the evidence and therefore a possible Assume the Trigger flaw!

“Propaganda is nothing but an attempt to influence behavior through repetition of simplistic slogans” is:

attempt to influence behavior through RSS –> propaganda

Question 54

How do you make an if-then statement which is an anti-conclusion into a conclusion?

Answer 54

E.g. Some people claim that all authors who write to give pleasure cannot impart truth. That claim is not true.

Basically you take the “all” part of anti-conclusion trigger, call it “at least one” and negate the anti-conclusion result. Conclusion is just most-dude style. That’s all it takes to make anti-conclusion if-then assertion not true. One instance (at least).

Anti conclusion: if AWTGP –> ~impart truth

Conclusion: at least one AWTGP + impart truth

See attached.

Question 55

When we see “some” or “many” or “several” in short arg, what should we think?

Answer 55

TWO. Just two.

Those are weak words

Question 56

Confusion of Sufficient and Necessary is obviously a flip of trigger and result, but what else…?

Answer 56

This is the same as simply negating the trigger and negating the result, without flipping! I.e. if you have A–>B, erroneously taking that as B–>A is the SAME as erroneously taking it as ~A–>~B

Note when you have CSN flaw, you always have to look out for Extreme Conclusion answer choice as well! CSN is subset of XC

Question 57

Apposotives are…

Answer 57

NOT qualifiers…they are just facts about the stuff next to apposotive…so they can be attached to your Dude with an And symbol. But again, not a qualifier, just a fact

Question 58

How to quickly tell difference between Assume the Trigger and CSN flaw…

Answer 58

Nuance between Assume the Trigger and CSN:

Conclusion of Assume the Trigger will grab a Result from Evidence relationship w/o evidence that trigger was true, and show it as Result in Conclusion. So the result just jumps into Conclusion World. Still a result though.

Conclusion of CSN will do one of 3:

1. Take Trigger from Evidence relationship and present it as a Result in Conclusion,
2. Take Result in Evidence and show it as ~Result in Conclusion (negating without flipping).
3. Take Result from Evidence and show it as TRIGGER in Conclusion world.

Question 59

When a conclusion asserts BIAS wrt to a survey, voting, or some evaluation that comes AFTER some kind of competition…and the Q asks to strengthen/weaken….

Answer 59

It’s a good idea to think in terms of WHEN the competition happens on a timeline and the concept of BIAS. When would the BIAS be revealed wrt the competition? The bias would be revealed BEFORE the competition or event.

PT 70 sec 4 #19 lopez tanner

Question 60

In correlation-causation question, what is one easy to miss type of Strengthener?

Answer 60

No cause - no effect i.e. a control group