Managing and Leading Change - (L6) Flashcards
(74 cards)
1
Q
What are some examples of organisational barriers to change?
A
- Power and conflict.
- Need to maintain stability.
- Investment in resources.
- Structure.
- Organisational culture.
2
Q
According to Kotter (1990), what is management’s role in contrast to that of leaders?
A
- Planning and budgeting; management strives for predictability in order to produce expected results.
- Organising and staffing; management is responsible for finding the right people capable to perform in their jobs to deliver on plans.
- Controlling and problem-solving; management looks to create an environment where subordinates can complete their tasks effectively.
3
Q
According to Kotter (1990), what is leadership’s role in contrast to that of management?
A
- Establishing direction; in contrast to management producing results, leadership is responsible for bringing about change, of which setting the direction of this is crucial so that managers understand how a vision can be achieved.
- Aligning people; for leadership this means getting people on-board with the vision and encouraging them to take this into their own hands and deliver on this.
- Motivating and inspiring; necessary to overcoming resistance to change, leaders attempt to be personable and give people a sense of identity and belonging within the organisation.
4
Q
What are some examples of drivers for change?
A
- Strong CEO/management support.
- Incentive program.
- Help from vendors.
- Customer demands.
- Legislative sanctions.
5
Q
What are some examples of resisters for change?
A
- Mistrust among management and employees.
- Change fatigue.
- Reluctance to use new technology.
- Union resistance.
- Poor communication channels.
- Low resources.
6
Q
Explain the purpose of Lewin’s Force Field Analysis.
A
Force field analysis was developed by Lewin (1951), and this is a tool often used to understand the range and strength of forces and drivers for and against change. This allows organisations to identify any power interests of those involved in the change process, and how they can be influenced to reduce resistance.
7
Q
What is a framework for bringing about successful change?
A
- Diagnose the present state.
- Define the desired future state.
- Identify the helping forces.
- Identify the resisting forces.
- Reduce the resisting forces.
- Emphasise the helping forces.
8
Q
Group barriers to change; explain the illusion of invulnerability.
A
Group members feels that they are above criticism, leading to excessive optimism and risk-taking.
9
Q
Group barriers to change; explain the illusion of group immorality.
A
Group members feel their actions are moral, leading the group to ignore possible ethical implications of decision making.
10
Q
Group barriers to change; explain the illusion of unanimity.
A
Group members believe there is unanimous agreement on a decision, and silence is indicative.
11
Q
Group barriers to change; rationalisation.
A
Group members feel the need to explain decisions to make them appear rational and correct. Alternatives are not considered.
12
Q
Group barriers to change; self-censorship.
A
Members do not express their doubts or concerns about the course of action taken, preventing critical analysis of decisions.
13
Q
Group barriers to change; peer pressure.
A
Members who express doubts are pressured by others to rethink.
14
Q
What are some examples of potential individual barriers to change?
A
- Selective perception.
- Habit(s).
- Inconvenience / loss of freedom.
- Economic implications.
- Security in the past.
- Fear of the unknown.
15
Q
What is Kotter’s 8-Step Leadership Model? What are the 8 steps?
A
• According to Kotter Inc. (2022), Kotter’s 8-step process for leading change was formed through his observations of leaders and organisations attempting to implement change. Based on these, success factors were found and combined into a model.
1) Create urgency.
2) Building coalition(s).
3) Form vision and strategy.
4) Enlist a volunteer army.
5) Enable action by removing barriers.
6) Generate short-term wins.
7) Sustain acceleration.
8) Institute change.
16
Q
Explain the first step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Create a sense of urgency: failing to do this is the single biggest contributor when attempting to implement change. People need to be interested in the idea and have a level of awareness in regard to the significance of transformation and must be motivated in order to handle the challenges that come with this.
17
Q
Explain the second step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Building a guiding coalition: people with power need to be involved in the process in order to help lead the change. Coalitions can be established at many levels and not just from executive management.
18
Q
Explain the third step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Form a vision and strategy: a vision must be set out to help members understand what is to be achieved, and this must be regarded as relevant and purposeful to encourage buy-in. Strategy will set out how this vision will be realised in the future (Kotter Inc.
19
Q
Explain the fourth step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Enlist a volunteer army: this will be comprised of those members (hopefully the majority of the organisation or relevant actors) that buy into the proposed vision and strategy and who want to drive change.
20
Q
Explain the fifth step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Enable action by removing barriers: this involves “removing obstacles to change… that undermine the vision” such as inefficient business processes.
21
Q
Explain the sixth step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Generate short-term wins: these “help to demonstrate the viability of change and to build momentum”. Such wins should be visible to members and communicated at regular intervals to maintain and reassure members of the positive impact of change and how these contribute to achieving the vision.
22
Q
Explain the seventh step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Sustain acceleration: Kotter believes that showing evidence of positive impacts of change and short-term wins should act as a catalyst to continuing change at greater pace in order to realise the vision.
23
Q
Explain the eighth step in Kotter’s 8-Step Model for Change.
A
• Institute change: this is about leveraging the new behaviours and ways of working introduced as a result of change and turning these into new habits.
24
Q
Explain William Bridges’ Transition Model.
A
When we’re managing and leading change, we need to recognise the feelings around transition. It takes people a while to adjust to a new way of doing things, leaving them in a dangerous transitory state. Bridges states that it’s not change itself that causes difficulties for organisations and its members, but rather the concept of transition.
Change first begins with the process of ending, losing or letting go of the past, such as existing ways of working or the loss of a loved one. This may be a time of grieving or separation.
In contrast, the new beginning is the opposite end of the spectrum where, for example, if someone has passed away, this may be the phase of moving on to continue on in life as opposed to being consumed by the prior event.
People often don’t see the neutral zone which can be seen as the ‘ready phase’ where they can appreciate and come to terms with the future but may not have a clear idea as to what this looks like.
25
Explain the fixed mindset put forward by Carol Dweck.
• The fixed mindset is where intelligence remains static and therefore the individual is not open to developing this further. This perhaps leads to a desire for one to look smart as opposed to being so. Challenges are avoided, obstacles appear to too difficult to overcome, effort is lacking, any criticism and feedback to improve is ignored, may feel jealous or threatened by the success of others, and therefore, they are more likely to be their own bottleneck of their true potential.
26
Explain the growth mindset put forward by Carol Dweck.
Intelligence is able to be developed. A desire to learn leads to a willingness to solve problems and tackle challenges, stay resilient when overcoming obstacles, see effort as necessary to develop, see criticism as a learning opportunity, feel inspired by others’ success, and therefore, become more likely to achieve highly.
27
Explain the Denial stage of the Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle.
• Denial: this is where for the individual stricken by an event, they fall into a state of shock and think about how, or whether they can, get through each day to come. Denial serves as a coping mechanism as an individual only accepts what they want to. At some point, the individual begins to question themselves and their feelings and enters the healing process.
28
Explain the Anger stage of the Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle.
• Anger: this naturally follows the denial stage and individuals often question why something has happened to them. This anger is a reflection of the pain the individual is experiencing as a result of loss, and potentially the love and connection that was once shared.
29
Explain the Bargaining stage of the Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle.
• Bargaining: this is the lowest point experienced by the individual once they have fully come to terms with loss, experiencing feelings such as helplessness and a sense of overwhelm. Individuals will often do anything to rid themselves of the pain they are experiencing, such as replaying the events up until the point of loss or reflecting on these.
30
Explain the Depression stage of the Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle.
• Depression: loss of a loved one or something important can naturally lead to a depressive phase where an individual questions whether there really is light at the end of the tunnel, but this is also a natural response.
31
Explain the Acceptance stage of the Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle.
• Acceptance: most people will never truly overcome or move on from a loss. This stage is about coming to terms with the fact that this loss is real, and reality has changed since the event. Over time, we learn to live with what has happened, although there will be initial resistance and attempts to try and return back to “normal life”.
32
Link the Deloitte study on combating COVID-19 with an agile change management approach with the Kubler-Ross curve, and how leadership can drive effective change.
* Leadership should be teaching and coaching their workforces through the stages of the adapted COVID-19 change curve, particularly during the valley of despair phase where morale and productivity is most impacted.
* Communication is key especially during a time where the majority of workforces have been forced to operate on a remote basis. Therefore, it’s important for organisations to communicate with its workforce in methods that are preferred in order to understand how employees are managing their way through the cycle and what support may be required.
* Leading change through the COVID-19 climate can only happen effectively where an organisation shows compassion for workforces and communities. Leaders should be decisive and clear as to their approach to managing and leading change.
* Employee safety should be of paramount importance, and wider stakeholders who are also heavily involved with the business should be included in the strategies designed to navigate change whilst ensuring safety.
* Some exemplary leadership qualities identified by Deloitte in practice include empathy, decisive action, transparency, and being skilled at triage (stabilising the organisation).
33
What is a stakeholder?
A stakeholder is anyone likely to be affected, directly or indirectly, by an organisational change or programme of changes.
34
According to Hayes (2007), what are some of the outcomes that may be important to stakeholders?
- Pay.
- Working conditions.
- Meaningful work.
- Autonomy.
- Opportunity for competition or collaboration.
- Opps to be creative.
- Power and influence.
- Belonging and involvement.
- Pay and security.
- Achievement.
- Recognition.
- Status.
35
Explain the process of mapping the political landscape.
This is similar to the stakeholder analysis and force field analysis where an organisation needs to identify:
• Potential supporters and promoters – who are they?
• Sceptics – who are they?
• The opinion leaders in those groups:
- (They usually have the resources, skills or social networks needed to win over the hearts and minds in the larger group).
• The ‘go to’ people:
- (See whose opinions sway others, with formal power, or pull from expertise or their networks).
36
Explain the power-interest matrix (Mitchell et al., 1997).
The power-interest matrix is used as a tool to categorise an organisation’s stakeholders according to two dimensions – power and interest. Different stakeholders have different levels of involvement with the business and will likely have competing interests. By mapping out an organisation’s stakeholders, organisations can design strategies that will help in managing them effectively, particularly during a period of change.
Where there is low power and low level of interest, communication and engagement can be infrequent. On the other hand where there is high power and interest levels, these stakeholders require regular communication.
37
How can the sceptical be engaged?
* Positive sceptics – as catalysts, saving time and creating success by catching flaws.
* Increases ownership/commitment, creating organizational change leaders.
* Shows that all voices/views/feedback matter and can be heard
* Addresses fear factors that underlie reservations.
* We need to listen, communicate, alleviate, take action.
* Consider developing their change management skills.
* Strive for stragility — strategic and agile.
38
Explain French and Raven's power bases with the two groupings.
• French and Raven posit that all power comes from the dynamic between individuals in an organisation. Power can only be understood within relationships.
French and Raven posit that the source of power comes from the relationship between O and P, where P is a person and O is a social agent – another person or group. “Social influence and power is limited to influence on the person, P, produced by a social agent, O…”
• Clayton (2021) divides power bases into two groups – positional and personal. Positional power bases are those that are given to someone due to their position/authority, whereas personal power bases are developed by individuals themselves.
39
Explain the Legitimate Power base.
This power is based on where an individual ranks in an organisation, and where they are ranked higher, they have more power. An individual with this power is seen to have influence over another due to the “legitimacy of authority”. One example of a legitimate power base is cultural values, e.g., attitudes towards men having power over women, elders having authority over youngers. Where power is abused due to perceived legitimacy, the power is weakened as perceived by the other individual or group. For example, use of coercion may be perceived to be inappropriate with respect to one’s legitimate position. However, positions in an organisation are not guaranteed and individuals can be replaced.
40
Explain the Coercive Power base.
This is the ability for an individual to make others do things and make things happen via threats and manipulation, and any type of force. Holding this type of power is said to bring negative valences, and coercive power can be dangerous as an individual may appear less attractive in the eyes of the other.
41
Explain the Reward power base.
“defined as power whose basis is the ability to reward”. This is where an individual uses rewards and incentives to influence others to do something and make things happen. Reward power increases where appropriate rewards are offered for the nature of tasks and decreases where rewards are disproportionate. Referent power also increases where another individual or group perceived rewards to be appropriate and well mediated. Where an individual’s referent power is high, the other individual or group will be more willing to associate with them and perhaps emulate their behaviour.
42
Explain the Information power base.
if an individual has access to or knowledge of information that is valuable and needed by others, they have information power. However, especially in this new digital age, information can be shared very easily in a number of different ways, which can weaken the strength of this. On the other hand, it can be argued that individuals need to understand how to use information; they need to have…
43
Explain the Expert power base.
Individuals with this power often have a deeper understanding of information and how it can be applied to different scenarios in order to achieve intended outcomes or objectives. An example of this is the acceptance of advice from an attorney.
44
Explain the Referent power base.
This is the personal power that an individual holds as a result of their personality and who they are. This often concerns an individual’s credibility and reliability which influences how they are regarded. Where others trust and look up to an individual, the individual has referent power.
45
What are the key conclusions from French and Raven?
Where power bases are strong, overall power is strong. Any attempt to abuse power outside of a defined range with reduce power. Coercion results in decreased attraction and high resistance, vice versa for rewarding. Where coercion is legitimate, the less resistance and increased attraction. PERSONAL POWER BASES ARE GENERALLY STRONGER IN THE LONGER TERM AND CAN BE DEVELOPED IN ORDER TO INFLUENCE CHANGE.
46
Which power bases can be expanded and why are these more important than others?
Things like personal characteristics, intellect, charisma, performance, self-control and personal power can all be used to influence people and can be developed over time. These can encourage buy-in and encourage change.
47
What are some examples of office politics and how these can be used to bring about change?
```
Consequently, in order to bring about change, individuals may engage in office politics, and according to Dubrin some examples include:
• Sucking up.
• Being a yes man.
• Email wars.
• Favouritism.
• White lies.
• Gossiping
```
48
What are the ideal segments for leaders to fit into according to Dubrin's model which assesses the level of political awareness and being good at reading, against how ethical they are?
* It’s ideal for leaders to fit into the tough segment where they are seen as both politically aware and good at reading, as well as being ethical. They are streetwise, credible and believable.
* The green segment is where a leader can be ethical but can be weak at reading and thus politically unaware at times due to a lack of experience.
49
How can we anticipate resistance to change according to Gleicher's Change Formula?
Gleicher uses four variables as part of a formula to determine whether change can occur or not.
Where dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs is high, and where the vision of what could be different is liked, and where steps towards realising the change are clear, this will often outweigh the level of resistance.
D * V * F > R.
If anyone of the DVF components is = 0 then change cannot occur and resistance cannot be overcome.
50
How can Education and Persuasion be used to bring about change? (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
• Education and Persuasion: to use this method, any desired changes should be communicated effectively with reasons; this should be used when employees don’t have the information about what the changes are and their implications; when employees can be persuaded, they are more likely to get involved to implement change; however, this can be time consuming if there are many people involved.
51
How can Participation be used to bring about change? (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
To use this, potential resisters and sceptics need to be involved in the design and implementation process of change; this should be used when initiators of change lack information needed to implement it; everyone feels committed to make the change; again, can be time consuming but inappropriate as resisters can be extreme in their change contributions
52
How can Facilitation be used to bring about change? (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
This is used by providing emotional support and training opportunities; this tends to be used when employees feel they may struggle to adapt to the change; shows employees how they can make adjustments; still vulnerable to failure and can be expensive.
53
How can Negotiation be used to bring about change? (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
This involves using incentives and is used when people are likely to lose out as a result and thus become resisters; this is a good way of diffusing resistance, but this can be expensive and leave managers vulnerable to blackmail.
54
How can Coercion be used to bring about change? (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
Used by way of threats or manipulation towards those opposed to change, e.g., loss of jobs; used when change needs to happen quickly and where initiators possess power; whilst this can knock down resistance quickly, it can spark resentment.
55
Explain Parochial Self Interest as a reason for why change is resisted. (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
People tend to resist change where they perceive they will be losing out on something; thus, they’re thinking about their own interests over that of the whole organisation. This can lead to political behaviour where individuals or groups often lobby against such change until there’s resolution.
56
Explain Misunderstanding/Lack of trust as a reason for why change is resisted. (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
Lack of trust can form where the implications of change are not understood or well communicated from initiators. Kotter and Shlesinger explain the case of president of a company who wanted to implement a flexible working schedule. However, many employees interpreted that they’d have to work when requested and on demand. They took action with a local union to demand the president to stop this change.
57
Explain Different Assessments as a reason for why change is resisted. (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
Employees may also resist where they perceive the costs and benefits outlined by change initiators to be underestimated or not fully accounted for. Initiators may feel that their assessment has been comprehensive, but this is problematic when such assessment hasn’t considered the opinions of stakeholders affected.
58
Explain Low Tolerance for Change as a reason for why change is resisted. (Kotter and Shlesinger, HBR)
Change is also resisted where people feel they lack and will not be able to develop the skillset required to adjust. People naturally have a limited tolerance for change as this brings them out of their comfort zone.
59
What are the four categories of change leadership and how are they linked to Dunphy and Stace's 1993 Contingency Model?
* Collaborative: widespread employee participation in key decisions affecting their and the organisation’s future.
* Consultative: limited involvement in setting goals relevant to employees’ areas of responsibility.
* Directive: the use of managerial authority in reaching decisions about change and the future and about how change will proceed.
* Coercive: senior management impose change on the organisations.
60
Explain the Fine Tuning scale type as part of Dunphy and Stace's 1993 Contingency Model.
Organisational change which is an ongoing process characterised by fine tuning of the fit between the organisation’s strategy, structure, people and processes. Such effort is manifested at departmental levels, dealing with things like policy refinement, clarifying roles, and fostering commitment to the company’s mission
61
Explain the Corporate Transformation scale type as part of Dunphy and Stace's 1993 Contingency Model.
Organisational change which is corporation-wide, characterised by radical shifts in business strategy and revolutionary changes throughout the whole organisation. Features include reforming the mission and value and structural/system change.
62
Explain the Incremental Adjustment scale type as part of Dunphy and Stace's 1993 Contingency Model.
Organisational change which is characterised by incremental adjustments to the changing environment. Such change involves distinct modifications to corpore business strategies, structures and management processes, such as improving process technology.
63
Explain the Modular Transformation scale type as part of Dunphy and Stace's 1993 Contingency Model.
Organisational change characterised by realignment of one/more departments. The process of radical change is focused on these subparts rather than the whole. For example, restructuring departments and appoints of executives.
64
Explain Participative Evolution.
This is a collaborative-consultative incremental change strategy. This is used when an organisations needs to make minor adjustments to meet environmental conditions. Time should be available and key groups should be interested in the change.
65
Explain Forced Evolution.
• Forced Evolution: this is a directive-coercive incremental change strategy and is used when minor adjustments are needed, time is available, but change is opposed.
66
Explain Charismatic Transformation.
This is a collaborative-consultative transformative change strategy. This is used where major adjustments are required, where there is little time for participation and where there is support for radical change.
67
Explain Dictatorial Transformation.
This is a directive-coercive transformative change strategy and is used where major adjustments are required, where there is little time for participation, and where there is no support for change but is necessary.
68
What are the four components of transformational leadership?
Individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealised influence/charisma.
69
Explain individualised consideration as a component of transformational leadership.
The leader treats each follower on his or her own merits, and to develop each follower through mentoring, coaching and delegation; coaching and empowering to success.
70
Explain Intellectual Stimulation as a component of transformational leadership.
The leader encourages free thinking and emphasises reasoning before any action is taken; encourage learning and growth.
71
Explain Inspirational Motivation as a component of transformational leadership.
The leader creates an optimistic, clear and attainable vision of the future, thus encouraging others to raise their expectations; inspiring to go to new heights.
72
Explain Idealised Influence/Charisma as a component of transformational leadership.
The leader makes personal sacrifices, takes responsibility for his or her actions, shares any glory, and shows great determination; lead by example and set expectations.
73
What do transformational leaders do?
* Lead people into the new.
* Get people excited about experiencing the new.
* Coach and support the team to act and learn.
* Set the example and lead the way.
* Use communication, integrity and respect to build relationships.
74
Explain successful change management - NokiaSiemens.
• Post-merger with Siemens, senior leadership were unaware of how both of the cultures of Nokia and Siemens would mesh together. Both companies at a leadership level were culturally diverse in nature, and the two companies had vastly different corporate cultures and ways of managing. The big issue was navigating how decisions were going to be made moving forward given Nokia’s traditionally centralised style versus Siemens decentralised style. The newly merged company decided to form a change team comprised of a mix of employees from both sides in order to lead and manage the change. Management understood that a new language was to be formed and spoken by all. Over time, this new culture began to produce results and Nokia has become a prominent network technology leader particularly in the 5G space.
