Marxism

Question 1

Hegemony in IR

Answer 1

Robert Cox

• Hegemony is useful to understand periods of history when dominant social class of a territory exerted control within and outside this territory
• Role of institutions in maintaining hegemony

Question 2

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Key Arguments

Answer 2

1. Marxism and the ideal of unity
2. Intermediate goal of non-antagonistic diversity
3. The nature of the state in Marxism

Question 3

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Argument - Marxism and the Ideal of unity

Answer 3

• A central ideal is the absolute unity of mankind compared to horizontal division (the segmentation of mankind into distinct groups)
• This reflects the aspiration for a society free from class division,
• Absolute Unity: This term refers to the ultimate goal of Marxism, where all people exist in a classless society, devoid of economic or social divisions
• Horizontal Division: This concept describes the segmentation of mankind into distinct groups or nations. Marxism views this as problematic and divergent from its core principle of unity

Question 4

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Argument - intermediate goal of non-antagonistic diversity

Answer 4

• Although Marxism initially envisions a unified humanity, it also acknowledges the historical existence of nations
• This produces an “intermediate goal” of fostering a situation where distinct nations can coexist peacefully without class conflict
• Non-Antagonistic Diversity: nations can maintain their separate identities without engaging in class struggles, promoting harmony among nations
• Nations, while not absolute and often historical constructs, play a crucial role in the immediate struggles of the proletariat

Question 5

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Argument - the nature of the state in Marxism

Answer 5

• State as a product of class struggle, primarily serving the interests of the ruling capitalist class
• The state as a “managing committee” for the bourgeoisie, existing to maintain the structures of exploitation and facilitate economic expansion
• The state, under capitalism, is inherently linked to the dynamics of class struggle
• Its function extends beyond merely enforcing laws to actively promoting capitalist interests and ensuring the continuation of exploitation

Question 6

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

“Clear moral argument in…”

Answer 6

“…Marxian thought against group diversity”

Question 7

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

[the state is a] ?

Answer 7

“Managing committee for the ruling class”

Question 8

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Strengths

Answer 8

1. Critique of state sovereignty and class struggle
2. Emphasis on historical materialism and economic relations

Question 9

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Strength - critique of state sovereignty and class struggle

Answer 9

• Challenges the conventional notion of a sovereign state as a neutral arbiter of IR
• This suggests that state actions are driven by underlying class interests rather than purely national interests
• Unlike realism, which often views states as unitary actors, Marxism highlights the class-based motives behind state behaviour
• This lends insight into how capitalist interests can shape foreign policy, such as economic expansionism and exploitation

Question 10

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Strength - emphasis on historical materialism and economic relations

Answer 10

• Marxism views conflicts as resulting from the internal tensions and inequalities of the capitalist system, rather than mere power politics
• This focus on economic foundations offers a systematic way to analyse global interactions, suggesting that shifts in economic conditions can fundamentally alter international relations
• This the limitations of constructivism, which often prioritises identities and norms in shaping IR
• This provides a strong framework for analysing economic influences on global politics, offering a counterpoint to views that tend to emphasise ideational aspects over structural causes

Question 11

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Weaknesses

Answer 11

1. Economic determinism
2. Neglect of international institutions
3. Inadequate engagement with nationalism and identity

Question 12

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Weakness - economic determinism

Answer 12

Constructivism

• Economic determinism, suggesting that all IR can ultimately be traced back to class struggle and economic factors
• This risks oversimplifying the complex motivations behind state actions and ignores the multifaceted nature of international interactions
• May lead to a reductionist view of IR, where non-economic factors - such as ideational, cultural, and historical influences - are minimised

Question 13

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Weakness - neglect of international institutions

Answer 13

English school
- Tends to dismiss the role of international institutions in shaping state behaviour and promoting cooperation

• Marxism suggests that the capitalist class struggle overpowers these institutions
• This may lead to a misunderstanding of how states interact within international frameworks, potentially oversimplifying conflict as mere reflections of class struggle
• From an English School perspective, this highlights a limited comprehension of the significance of international norms, institutions, and the concept of a “society of states.”
• The English School argues that states operate within a framework of shared values and norms that can mitigate anarchy and promote cooperation
• Overlooks the role of international institutions such as the UN in reducing conflict and fostering cooperation

Question 14

“On Marxian thought and the problem of international relations” - Robert Berki

Weakness - inadequate engagement with nationalism and identity

Answer 14

Realism and constructivism

• Downplays the importance of nationalism and identity politics, framing these issues as secondary to class struggle
• Ignoring nationalism may limit understanding of conflicts that are rooted in historical grievances, cultural differences, and self-determination movements
• Realists point to nationalism as a powerful motivator of state behaviour, while constructivists emphasise the role of identity and social constructs in shaping how states perceive their interests
• By sidelining this, Marxism may fail to account for the complexities of intra-state and inter-state conflicts driven by cultural narratives, ethnic divisions, and national pride

Question 15

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer
Key arguments

Answer 15

1. Historical materialism: the foundational theory of Marxism
2. The mode of production
3. Class and class struggle
4. Ideology and false consciousness
5. The stare and its role in class domination
6. International implications of Marxism

Question 16

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - historical materialism: the foundational theory of Marxism

Answer 16

• Historical materialism asserts that material (economic) conditions, rather than ideas or values, are the primary drivers of historical development
• Human history is a story of class struggles, driven by the development of the productive forces (labour, tools, technology) and their conflict with the relations of production (ownership structures)
• EG, the transition from feudalism to capitalism - The feudal mode became obsolete when the bourgeoisie emerged, supported by growing trade and technological innovation
• This theory reframes history not as a succession of ideas but as a succession of material transformations
• It insists that ideologies and institutions are ‘superstructures’, which serve to stabilise the ‘base’ - the economic structure

Question 17

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - the mode of production

Answer 17

• A mode of production consists of:
  1. Productive forces: labour power, tools, technology,
  2. Relations of production: who owns what, who works for whom
• Society’s economic base determines its superstructure - the legal, political, and ideological systems
• This approach demystifies liberal concepts like “freedom” or “equality” by showing that in capitalism, these are formal freedoms that conceal exploitation
• Marxism reveals how institutions present themselves as neutral while ideologically maintaining class dominance

Question 18

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - class and class struggle

Answer 18

Class and Class Struggle
- Under capitalism, the conflict is between the bourgeoisie and proletariat

• This struggle is structural - it’s rooted in the system of wage labour and capital accumulation
• The bourgeoisie needs profit to survive; to achieve this, it must extract surplus value from workers
• Workers are paid less than the value they create
• Cannot be resolved within capitalism - it can only be transcended through revolution

Question 19

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - ideology and false consciousness

Answer 19

• Dominant ideology - A set of ideas that mask the real conditions of exploitation, presenting the interests of the ruling class as the universal interest
• Capitalist ideology naturalises class structures - through meritocracy or nationalism - and distracts the proletariat from recognising their exploitation
• Workers internalise bourgeoise ideology and fail to see their true class interests
• They may believe capitalism is just
• Ideology operates not just through education or media, but in the very structure of daily life

Question 20

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - the state and its role in class domination

Answer 20

• The state is not a neutral arbiter but an instrument of class rule
• It maintains the interests of the ruling class through RSA (police, army) and ISA (law, education)
• Criticises liberal views of the state as protecting individual rights, highlighting that rights like property are class-based
• The state’s “neutrality” is a myth - Marxism sees liberal democracy not as universal representation but bourgeoise democracy

Question 21

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Argument - international implications of Marxism

Answer 21

• Marxism provides a basis for analysing global inequality - capitalist states expand into poorer regions to extract resources and cheap labour
• This is an extension of class exploitation across borders
• EG, the rise of global capitalism and exploitation of the Global South reflects the export of the class relation: the global bourgeoisie exploits the global proletariat

Question 22

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Strengths

Answer 22

1. Structural critique of the global capitalist system
2. Ideology and the critique of liberal norms
3. Emphasis on global class relations and transnational solidarity

Question 23

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Strength - Structural Critique of the Global Capitalist System

Answer 23

• Marxism uniquely situates IR within a global capitalist totality, offering a systemic and materialist understanding of international dynamics
• It frames war, imperialism and diplomacy as phenomena rooted in the economic interests of the capitalist mode of production
• This explains international behaviour not in terms of states as rational units (as realism does), but in terms of transnational class relations
• It shifts the focus from the state-centric lens to the global capitalist system.
• Marxism provides a historical-materialist lens, explaining how the global system shapes state interests

Question 24

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer

Strength - Ideology and the Critique of Liberal Norms

Answer 24

• Marxism deconstructs liberal ideologies - such as equality, freedom - as ideological superstructures that stabilise capitalist exploitation
• This critique applies to international norms and institutions that appear neutral but serve bourgeoise interests
• This allows Marxism to demystify liberal internationalism - by showing how global institutions (e.g. IMF, World Bank, UN) reproduce unequal power relations under the guise of cooperation
• Contributes to IRT as it reveals that international “norms” often serve the interests of capital-exporting states
• It critiques liberal cosmopolitanism as a tool for moralising intervention while ignoring global economic injustice
• Realism sees norms as irrelevant to power politics, while Marxism sees them as ideologically functional

Question 25

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer Strength - Emphasis on Global Class Relations and Transnational Solidarity

Answer 25

- Marxism reorients IR around class rather than nation-states - It emphasises global class struggle - This alters how we view conflict, alliances, and international cooperation - Marxism calls attention to class interest and the possibility of transnational solidarity - e.g., anti-colonial movements or global resistance to neoliberalism - It explains how global capitalism produces both domination and resistance, helping us analyse international protests, anti-globalisation movements, or populist uprisings

Question 26

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer Weaknesses

Answer 26

1. Economic reductionism and the neglect of political and strategic agency 2. Determinism and the underestimation of norms, ideas and identity 3. Insufficient engagement with contemporary global multipolarity

Question 27

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer Weakness - Economic Reductionism and the Neglect of Political and Strategic Agency

Answer 27

The English School - Marxism tends to reduce all IR to the economic base, at the expense of analysing the autonomy of political and strategic interests - It assumes that the state is merely an instrument of the ruling class, ignoring the reality that states often act independently of capitalist imperatives - States do not always act in line with capitalist class interests - The English School allows for a pluralist society of states with shared rules and order beyond economic competition - This better account for state autonomy beyond capitalist reproduction - By seeing the state too simplistically as a capitalist tool, Marxism underestimates the strategic, military, and diplomatic complexity of international politics - It misses the multidimensionality of power that is central to IRT

Question 28

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer Weakness - Determinism and the Underestimation of Norms, Ideas, and Identity

Answer 28

Constructivism and Securitisation Theory - Marxism treats ideology and identity as mere reflections of economic structures - This deterministic view leaves little room for the independent power of ideas, norms in shaping international outcomes - It downplays the possibility that non-material factors can constitute actors’ interests or reshape the international system - In practice, norms such as sovereignty and human rights play a crucial role in IR - Marxism cannot adequately explain why some capitalist states behave differently or why norm-driven movements (e.g. climate activism) sometimes override economic interests - Constructivism shows how social structures, norms, and discourse shape international politics, independently of the economy - Securitisation theory demonstrates how political speech acts can redefine what counts as a threat - not everything is reducible to material class struggle

Question 29

“Intersectionality and Marxism” - Ashley Bohrer Weakness - Insufficient Engagement with Contemporary Global Complexity and Multipolarity

Answer 29

Neoliberalism and the English School - Marxist theories often rely on a 19th or early 20th-century model of global capitalism, focused on Western industrial societies and binary class structures - It struggles to address multipolar power relations, the rise of new powers (e.g. China, India), the fragmentation of the global working class - The contemporary international system is shaped by interdependence, multilateral cooperation, and the diffusion of power - Marxism often overlooks how capitalist and non-capitalist states coexist, how regional powers act autonomously - Neoliberalism shows how institutions mitigate anarchy and enable cooperation even among unequal actors - This better accommodate diverse state interests, non-Western agency, and institutional evolution - Marxism’s binary lens (bourgeoisie vs. proletariat, core vs. periphery) struggles to account for new configurations of power, emerging middle classes and intra-state inequality