Media 30.3

Answer 1

Essay 7: Evaluate the Postmodernist view on media ownership and control
1. Argument — Media Saturation and Hyperreality
Theory: Postmodernism
Sociologists: Baudrillard, Strinati
Baudrillard argues we live in a state of hyperreality, where simulations (e.g. Disney) replace truth. Strinati notes media is central to postmodern society, where truth is fragmented and reality shaped by the media. Less ownership power, with a blurring between passive and active audiences.

Answer 2

2. Argument — Globalisation and Audience Choice
   Theory: Postmodernism
   Sociologists: Jenkins, Trowler
   Jenkins argues that convergence culture gives users media-making power. Trowler describes media messages as polysemic, interpreted differently by individuals globally. Local cultures adapt global content (glocalisation). Media owners have little control over what its used for.

Answer 3

3. Argument — Decline of Media Owner Power
   Theory: Postmodernism
   Sociologists: Gauntlett, Jenkins
   Digital tools allow users to produce media content (blogs, YouTube). Gauntlett suggests media literacy undermines media hegemony. Jenkins adds participatory culture erodes the traditional owner-audience divide.

Answer 4

4. Evaluation — Underestimation of Structural Inequality
   Theory: Neo-Marxism
   Sociologists: Curran, Hall
   Curran argues postmodernism ignores concentrated media ownership. Hall shows media reinforce ruling-class ideologies, especially via subtle control of information (e.g. bias in news).
   ________________________________________

Answer 5

5. Evaluation — Weak Empirical Basis
   Theory: Pluralism/Marxism
   Sociologists: Philo, Trowler
   Philo criticises postmodernism for vagueness and lack of evidence. Trowler warns against ignoring how dominant narratives are repeatedly reinforced across platforms (drip-drip effect).

Answer 6

6. Evaluation — Audience Fragmentation is Limited by Algorithms
   Theory: Marxism
   Sociologists: Zuboff, Adorno
   Zuboff’s ‘Surveillance Capitalism’ argues platforms shape user behaviour. Adorno sees digital media as reinforcing consumer capitalism rather than liberating users.
   ________________________________________

Answer 7

Essay 8: Evaluate the view that media directly shapes our behaviour
1. Argument — Copycat Violence
Theory: Hypodermic Syringe Model
Sociologists: Bandura
Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment shows children imitate aggressive behaviour from media. Structural theorists argue that passive audiences absorb content uncritically, particularly violence.

Answer 8

2. Argument — Disinhibition Effect
   Theory: Behaviourism
   Sociologists: McCabe & Martin
   Screen violence may lift internal restraints. Children learn from film/TV that conflict can be solved through violence, potentially encouraging aggression in real life.

Answer 9

3. Argument — Drip-Drip Effect and Desensitisation
   Theory: Cultural Effects Model
   Sociologists: Newson, Ofcom
   Newson argues prolonged exposure to media violence normalises aggression. Ofcom found many children don’t question online content, increasing susceptibility to harmful messages.

Answer 10

4. Evaluation — Methodological Flaws in Evidence
   Theory: Interpretivism
   Sociologists: Gauntlett, Ramos
   Gauntlett critiques artificial lab experiments like Bandura’s. Ramos found that viewing real rather than fictional violence increased empathy, challenging assumptions of desensitisation.

Answer 11

5. Evaluation — Selective Exposure and Active Audiences
   Theory: Selective Filter Model
   Sociologists: Klapper, Katz
   Klapper outlines filters: exposure, perception, retention. Katz’s two-step flow model also shows media is mediated by opinion leaders, making direct effects unlikely.

Answer 12

6. Evaluation — Reception Theory and Diverse Interpretations
   Theory: Reception Analysis Model
   Sociologists: Hall, Morley
   Hall’s theory shows audiences make preferred, oppositional, or negotiated readings based on social background. Morley found class and education affect how media messages are interpreted.

Answer 13

Essay 9: Evaluate the view that media representations of the elderly are ageist and stereotypical
1. Argument — Symbolic Annihilation of the Elderly
Theory: Feminism
Sociologists: Cuddy & Fiske, Age Concern
Elderly people are largely invisible in the media. Cuddy & Fiske found only 1.5% of American TV characters were elderly, often shown as mentally or physically impaired. Age Concern (2000) highlights ageist portrayals as burdens or comic relief.

Answer 14

2. Argument — Double Standards of Ageing
   Theory: Feminism
   Sociologists: Sontag, White et al.
   Sontag’s ‘double standard of ageing’ shows that older women are judged more harshly than older men. White et al. found older viewers felt misrepresented or invisible, especially middle-aged women, who are rarely shown in high-status media roles.

Answer 15

3. Argument — Limited Positive Roles Reinforce Stereotypes
   Theory: Interactionism
   Sociologists: Goffman, Lee et al.
   Goffman’s impression management applies to how the elderly are shown in tokenistic roles. Lee et al. found only 15% of adverts feature the elderly, usually as ‘golden agers’ — active, healthy and wealthy — reinforcing narrow, unrealistic expectations.

Answer 16

4. Evaluation — Rise of the Grey Pound
   Theory: Pluralism
   Sociologists: Lee et al., Curran
   Lee et al. found that advertisers are increasingly targeting older audiences due to their spending power. Curran argues this shift shows media reflects audience demand, not ageist control by owners.

Answer 17

5. Evaluation — Postmodern Blurring of Age Identities
   Theory: Postmodernism
   Sociologists: Blaikie, Featherstone
   Postmodernists argue ageing is no longer fixed. Blaikie notes retirees reinvent themselves through consumption. Featherstone sees ageing identities as fragmented and fluid in a media-saturated culture.

Answer 18

6. Evaluation — New Media Gives Elderly More Voice
   Theory: Postmodernism
   Sociologists: Jenkins, Pew Research
   Jenkins argues digital participation increases older adults’ media visibility. Pew found older people using Facebook and blogs to challenge stereotypes and connect with others, undermining symbolic annihilation.
   ________________________________________

Answer 19

Essay 10: Evaluate the view that media representations of children and childhood are constructed and shaped by adult agendas
1. Argument — Stereotyped Roles of Children
Theory: Content Analysis / Media Effects
Sociologists: Headliners (1998), Heintz-Knowles
Headliners identified 7 stereotypes: cute, little devils, accessories, brave angels, victims, etc. Heintz-Knowles found that children are often shown in pro-social roles but rarely as politically or socially aware.

Answer 20

2. Argument — Children as Consumers
   Theory: Marxism
   Sociologists: Evans & Chandler, Adorno
   Evans & Chandler argue children are socialised into consumerism via adverts, leading to ‘pester power.’ Adorno would view this as false needs created to benefit capitalism, increasing family tension and debt.

Answer 21

3. Argument — Negative Coverage of Non-Conforming Youth
   Theory: Interactionism
   Sociologists: Becker, Cohen
   Children who don’t fit dominant norms face vilification. E.g., Sun newspaper called for harsher sentencing after James Bulger’s murder. Becker’s labelling theory explains how children become scapegoats or moral panics.

Answer 22

4. Evaluation — Representation Varies by Class and Ethnicity
   Theory: Intersectionality
   Sociologists: Ghuman, Hall
   Ghuman finds that ethnic minority children are often stereotyped based on cultural assumptions. Hall’s concept of the ‘white eye’ shows ethnocentric portrayals of children in news and drama.

Answer 23

5. Evaluation — Pro-Social Portrayals Are Common Too
   Theory: Pluralism
   Sociologists: Heintz-Knowles, Wayne et al.
   Heintz-Knowles’ US study found children shown helping others and resolving conflict. Wayne et al. argue this offers role models and educational value, especially in children’s TV and news media.

Answer 24

6. Evaluation — Cultural Differences and Limited UK Data
   Theory: Interpretivism
   Sociologists: Buckingham, Gauntlett
   Buckingham notes much of the evidence is US-based, limiting generalisability. Gauntlett suggests new media allows children more agency in constructing and sharing identity than traditional media allows.

Answer 25

____________________________________ Essay 13: Evaluate the Marxist perspective on globalisation and the media's mass culture 1. Argument — Cultural Imperialism and Media Ownership Theory: Marxism Sociologists: McChesney, Hannerz McChesney argues transnational media corporations dominate global culture, reinforcing capitalist hegemony. Hannerz refers to this as 'Coca-colonisation', where Western consumerism overtakes local traditions.

Answer 26

2. Argument — Mass Culture and False Needs Theory: Frankfurt School Marxism Sociologists: Marcuse, Adorno Marcuse claims mass media distracts the working class with trivial entertainment ('bread and circuses'), creating false needs that prevent critical thought. Adorno highlights the commodification of culture.

Answer 27

3. Argument — Ideological Control via Global Media Theory: Instrumental Marxism Sociologist: Chomsky Chomsky's 'propaganda model' argues that global media filters out dissent to manufacture consent, ensuring dominant capitalist narratives are upheld worldwide.

Answer 28

4. Evaluation — Cultural Hybridity Resists Imperialism Theory: Postmodernism Sociologist: Thompson Thompson argues global media is reinterpreted locally, forming hybrid identities (e.g., Bollywood). This undermines claims that globalisation simply spreads Western norms.

Answer 29

5. Evaluation — Participatory Culture Undermines Elitism Theory: Postmodernism Sociologist: Jenkins Jenkins says digital platforms empower users to challenge dominant narratives and participate creatively in culture, eroding top-down ideological control.

Answer 30

6. Evaluation — Audience Demand Drives Media Content Theory: Pluralism Sociologist: Strinati Strinati argues global media success reflects consumer choice, not manipulation. Consumers choose Western products due to preference, not ideological control.

Answer 31

________________________________________ Essay 14: Evaluate the view that access to new media is shaped by class, age, and gender 1. Argument — Digital Class Divide Theory: Marxism Sociologists: Helsper, Livingstone Helsper identifies a digital underclass with limited access and skills, reinforcing inequality. Livingstone links this to reduced educational and economic opportunities.

Answer 32

2. Argument — Age-Based Inequalities in Media Access Theory: Life Course Theory Sociologist: Boyle Boyle found young people are digital natives, engaging in multi-platform use, while older generations have lower literacy and access, deepening generational divides.

Answer 33

3. Argument — Gender Differences in Media Use Theory: Feminism Sociologists: Olson, Klimmt Olson found boys dominate gaming spaces tied to violence and power. Klimmt found women favour interaction and avoid violent games, reflecting gendered socialisation.

Answer 34

4. Evaluation — Increased Access Across Generations Theory: Pluralism Sociologist: Ofcom Ofcom data shows rising internet use among over-65s, narrowing age gaps and indicating access is improving.

Answer 35

5. Evaluation — Postmodern Rejection of Structural Boundaries Theory: Postmodernism Sociologists: Pakulski & Waters They argue identity is now fluid and individualised, meaning class, age, and gender no longer define media use in fixed ways.

Answer 36

6. Evaluation — Feminist Empowerment through New Media Theory: Liberal Feminism Sociologist: Jenkins Jenkins highlights participatory platforms like #MeToo as examples of how women use media to challenge patriarchy and shape discourse.