Media Language Flashcards
1
Q
Analepsis
A
flash backs
2
Q
Anchorage
A
the text-based element that stabilises the polysenic nature of the text
3
Q
Auteur
A
a media creative who has an identifiable style or approach that is visible across the products they make or feature in. Actors, directors and sound composers could be auteurs
4
Q
Auteur Effects
A
argues that genre subversion is often caused by the effects that key contributors have in production (directors, actors and so on). Auteurs style genre driven content using individual hallmarks
5
Q
Balancing Elements
A
a technique whereby background interest is balanced with the foreground subject
6
Q
Bard
A
storyteller
7
Q
Bardic Influence
A
refers to the nature of the media as a storyteller or information provider within the culture
8
Q
Baroni
A
accuses Todorov of confining commentary to an objective view of narrative and structure instead of analysing functions, meanings and sociohistorical contexts
9
Q
Big Close Up
A
extreme close up camera shot, usually focusing on the face or close detail of the body
10
Q
Binary Opposite
A
when representations are structured as pairs that reflect oppositional values, for example, good vs evil
11
Q
Binary Opposition
A
the conflict created between two opposing ideas; this conflict creates the problems that drive narratives forward
12
Q
Binary Thinking Structures
A
Strauss argues that humans naturally order the world using binary thinking. This thinking blueprint is expressed in the cultural products of any given society - in myths or television drama for example
13
Q
CGI
A
Computer Generated Imagery
the application of computer graphics to printed or moving image media, commonly referring to 3D computer graphics used for special effects in film sequences
14
Q
Character Fallibility
A
where writers give heroes character flaws to construct vulnerability and to enable audience relatability; heroes inevitably have to overcome these flaws to successfully complete narrative quests
15
Q
Character Oppositions
A
where the construction of characters is juxtaposed; oppositions might be based on age, ability, physical appearance or the moral outlook of each character
16
Q
Charles Pierce
A
theorised that there are three types of signs: icon, index and symbol
17
Q
Cliffhanger
A
narrative device where suspension is created at the end of an episode or before an advert break in order to persuade the viewer to continue watching subsequence instalments of the programme to find out what happens next
18
Q
Closed Narrative
A
a story where all the main narrative threads are neatly resolved
19
Q
Close-Up
A
a shot taken at close range
20
Q
Code
A
an aspect of text from which the audience can derive meaning through decoding or deconstructing
21
Q
Hermeneutic/Enigma Code
A
a mystery within a text that is not immediately answered. As an audience, we assume that this mystery is going to be solved at some point
22
Q
Proairetic/Action Code
A
parts of a narrative which are related to things happening
23
Q
Semantic Code
A
something within a text that means something, often multiple meanings
24
Q
Symbolic Code
A
a part of the text that stands in for, or means, something else
25
Referential Code
where a part of a text refers to something outside of the text, assuming the audience has knowledge of whatever it is the text is referring to
26
Condensed Equilibrium
contemporary audiences have a much lower boredom threshold, expecting products to deliver actions or disruption quickly, so producers therefore propel narratives towards moments of immediate disruption to hook audience engagement from the outset
27
Contextual Effects
genre conventions are reshaped by social forces
28
Continuity
the logical and consistent presentation of images in the movement across frames within moving image products
29
Continuity Editing
editing choices made to create logical and linear coherence
30
Contrapuntal
sound that doesn’t match the action on screen
31
Conventions
the widely recognised and typical way of producing media products within a particular genre or media form
32
Colour
use complimentary or opposing colours in the background
33
Colour Palette
suite of colours used in the creation of media texts, such as websites and magazines, to reflect a brand and appeal to its audience
34
Connotation
1st order of signification
the possible hidden meanings behind the denotation, which are down to the audience to interpret, designates secondary meaning; for example, red has connotations of danger, love, blood, etc
35
Cowboy Shot
often used in Western films, where people are shot from roughly the thighs upwards
36
Crane Shot
a camera shot that is taken from above the ground high on a crane, also known as a jib
37
Crosscut
editing technique used to establish that action is occurring at the same time
38
Cultural Codes
elements that require external information or cultural knowledge to be decoded
39
Cut
where one shot ends and another begins
40
Dead Space
space with nothing in it
41
Decoding
the process of getting from denotation to connotation
42
Deep Focus
a technique used in photography or cinematography which produces a depth of field where everything is in focus
43
Denotation
2nd order of signification
object placed within the text, designates primary meaning; for example, red denotes a colour
44
Depth of Field
a technique whereby the background or foreground is blurred to separate your subject
45
Depth of Layers
a technique whereby the subject is positioned in front of or behind objects to create 3D depth
46
Dialogue
words spoken by characters in a media product, such as films or television dramas
47
Diegesis
the act of telling a story through narration
48
Diegetic Sound
sound that is part of the storyworld of the film
49
Difference and Deferral
concept by Jacques Derrida, which states sings are formed through difference and deferral -their relationship to other signs
50
Difference
refers to how signs acquire meaning through their relationship to other signs. For example, we are taught that the combination of letters or sounds that form the verb ‘stop’ signifies a particular action and these definitions make sense because they’re part of our language systems
51
Deferral
refers to how signs exist through their relationships to other signs, suggesting no sign can be fully self-contained and have no meaning in isolation, for example, a red light has no meaning without the absence of a green light, which acts as a trace of a sign
52
Differential Focus
a technique whereby the subject is left in sharp focus to guide the eye
53
Direct Effect
where producers encode messages and audiences decode them as expected
54
Disruption Stage
usually the second act of a narrative wherein the harmony of the hero's world is disrupted by a series of events, propels the hero on a quest to repair their world
55
Editing
a post-production technique involving arranging, revising and preparing written, audio or video content to get the piece ready for audience consumption
56
Ellipsis
where sentences are incomplete and are finished with a series of three dots; the words then need to be filled by the consumer
57
Encoding
what message is communicated by a product’s producer
58
Enculturation
the process of learning social norms or behaviours through matching others or by engaging with a culture, a process that Gerbner argues that the media contributes to
59
Enigma Codes
conventionally used at the start of narratives to hook audience interest by creating mystery, also known as hermeneutic codes
60
Episodic Narrative
narrative that is introduced and concluded within the episode
61
Establishing Shot
a shot that is at the head of a scene that clearly shows the location of the action, sometimes done by drones
62
Extreme Close-Up
often used to put focus on an aspect of someone or something, such as a smile in a toothpaste advert
63
Extreme Wide Shot
a shot with an extremely large amount of space around it
64
Fabula
a term in narrative theory, Russian for story
65
Fade
a transition that moves to or from an image to a single colour, usually black or white, where the second shot appears gradually so both images are on screen for a period of time
66
Ferdinand Saussure
theorised that we form signs in the order: signifier, signified, sign
67
Field's Narrative Theory
similar to Todorov’s theory, but splits screenplays into three sections, triggered by plot points including inciting incidents, midpoints and climaxes
68
Setup
where the audience’s attention is grabbed by showing the audience who the protagonist is and why we should care about them, establishing the style and genre and then showing the audience the nature of the problem the hero has to face
69
Confrontation
the longest act, shows the hero in more and more extreme situations, where they’re helpless against opposing forms; there may be a midpoint where they start to turn things around
70
Resolution
the hero wins out by confronting opposing forces on their own territory
71
Fill the Frame
a technique whereby you get in close and fill the frame with your subject
72
Fisheye Shot
an extremely wide shot, typically 180 degrees, giving an abstract yet dynamic aesthetic that appears distorted
73
Five-Act Model
Tsvetan Todorov’s narrative theory focuses on the structure of a narrative. Todorov states that when a film ahs a distinct narrative, it becomes more organised and structured, making it easier for the viewer to understand the story and plot. Todorov theorised that a film is separated into five main stages
74
a state of equilibrium
first stage of Todorov's narrative theory; the first section of the narrative, sets up the basis of the film by showing a state of normality as it is at the start of a film
75
disruption of equilibrium
second stage of Todorov's narrative theory; the film gains a purpose: to create a new equilibrium
76
recognition of the disruption
third stage of Todorov's narrative theory; this allows the film to move forward in its goal of restoring the equilibrium
77
reinstatement of a new equilibrium
last stage of Todorov's narrative theory; the final section of the film restores the equilibrium, or creates a new equilibrium
78
attempt to repair the disruption
fourth stage of Todorov's narrative theory; something happens to restore the equilibrium of the film
79
Flexi-Narrative
used in long format television products with some narratives resolved in a single episode and others concluded over the course of a whole series or even longer, nurturing long-term viewing
80
Flow
term coined by Raymond Williams, suggests that broadcast media is experienced as flow of similar segments rather than separate items
81
Frame Stories
stories told inside of stories, testing Todorov’s narrative structure through the presentation of nested moments of equilibrium and disequilibrium
82
Framing
frame subject with surrounding objects, such as buildings, people and trees
83
Full Shot
a shot that shows the entire subject and some features of scenery
84
Genre Based Oppositions
some types of character, stylistic or narrative oppositions are associated with genre driven products. Detective/killer character archetypes, for example, are a common ingredient in crime dramas
85
Genre Difference
Neale tells us that media producers make products with identifiable genre ingredients to satisfy audience demand, but they also inject novelty so that their output doesn't feel too repetitive
86
Genre-Driven Binary Opposition
where some binary oppositions are so deeply entrenched within a genre that they become a convention of the genre, such as how crime drama routinely deploy ‘law enforcer/law breaker’ stereotypes
87
Genre Fatigue
a phrase used when a genre no longer engages audience interest, might occur when a media market is flooded with output from the same genre or when products no longer innovate genre rules
88
Genre Hybridisation
using the aesthetic styles, narrative devices or character driven conventions from two or more genres in one product
89
Genre Subversion
term used when products break genre conventions. Genre subversions are likely to experiment with character, narrative or stylistic expectations
90
Genre Theory
Steve Neale theorised that genres feed off of stereotypes and repetition, but each time with subject variations and subversions, that genre has a relative and dynamic nature, and that you identify genre by signifiers, allowing audiences to predict what is going to happen, but there are only two genres
91
Genre of Integration
involves restoring relationships, group dynamics, resolution of emotion and reconnection
92
Genre of Order
involves restoring order from chaos, a lone central figure and resolution from violent conflict, often killing the bad guy
93
Handheld Camera
a style of filming where the camera is hand held and not mounted on a tripod, often producing jerky footage which makes the product appear more realistic to audiences
94
Hermeneutic Codes
Also known as enigma codes, these elements create mystery. Enigma codes are conventionally used at the start of narratives to hook audience interest.
95
High-Angle Shot
a shot positioned below the eye line of the subject, pointing upwards
96
High/Low Cultural Remixing
a common form of genre hybridisation that blend pop culture ingredients with motifs from more serious genres
97
Homogenised Cultural Effects
where TV makes people think the same things and adopt the same attitudes, achieved by the media’s reach and lack of cultural diversity
98
Hybridised Tonal Shift
the use of ingredients from a number of genres to author a range of emotional effects. A horror/crime hybrid, for example, can shift from moments of fear to suspense or intrigue.
99
Icon
a sign that bears a physical resemblance to what is being signified, such as a photograph
100
Iconic Sign
a sign that bears a physical resemblance to what is being signified, such as a photograph
101
Iconography
refers to the visual components in a media product that are genre driven, including mise en scène elements (setting, costume & acting) as well as other stylistics (camerawork, editing or typography)
102
Idealised Depiction
media representation that constructs a perfected image of something or someone, used to create audience interest
103
Ideal Narrative Arc
suggests that the ‘ideal’ narrative structure follows an equilibrium, disequilibrium, new equilibrium structure
104
Ideological Effect
channel audiences to believe a particular set of ideas or beliefs
105
Ideological Villainy
where narrative disequilibrium is constructed through the presence and action of symbolic villains who symbolise qualities the audience are guided to avoid
106
Ideology
refers to the unwritten rules that govern how we act or that define socially acceptable behaviours because the media plays a crucial role in shaping and communicating these invisible rules
107
Index
a sign that shows evidence of what is being represented; for example, smoke representing a fire
108
Indexical Sign
a sign that shows evidence of what is being represented; for example, smoke representing a fire
109
In media res
where stories begin mid-action, delivering immediate crisis, inverting Todorov’s narrative theory through the presentation of disequilibrium before equilibrium
110
Institutional Mediation
the effect that institutions have in shaping genre driven output
111
Intertextuality
referencing of another media text within a media product, rewards knowing audiences or can be used to provoke a nostalgic response
112
Intertextual Relay
refers to the marketing materials that identify a product, plays a crucial role in fixing the genre label that audiences use to describe a product
113
Jump Cut
a noticeable edit between two images with subject and framing
114
Leading Lines
road, rails, lines of lampposts, buildings etc, which lead to the subject
115
Left to Right Rule
moving objects should go from the left of the frame to the right of the frame
116
Long Shot
also known as wide shot or film shot, this has a lot of space around the subject, often dwarfing the subject against an expansive terrain
117
Logocentrism
the belief in speech as a fundamental truth as a primary form of language, because it represents an immediate presence of thought and reality, making writing a derivative representation of speech because it works in the absence of the speaker. Derrida rejected this theory, arguing that meaning isn’t fully present at any stage of communication, but is produced through the interplay of signs
118
Low-Angle Shot
a shot positioned about the eye line of the subject, pointing downwards
119
Master Plot
the most basic overview of events
120
Mediated Age
the current age, where semiology is most relevant
121
Media Language
the way in which text is constructed to create meaning for a reader or viewer of the text
122
Media Text
a unit of meaning for interpretation and understanding, a bearer of communication, a mover of meaning, could be any form of media: film, video games, apps, tweets, books, articles, website, songs, podcasts etc.
123
Medium Close Up
shows people from roughly the chest upwards
124
Medium Long Shot
in between full shot and medium shot, typically shows people from the knees up
125
Medium Shot
one of the most common camera shots, where people are shot from roughly the waist upwards
126
Message
the expected reading that the audiences takes from the media text
127
Message Reductionism
Barthes argues that the media tends to simplify or purify complex ideas. This 'reductive' impulse discourages audiences from questioning media messages and can construct ideological effects
128
Message Repetition
according to Barthes, this constructs ideological effects because audiences readily believe ideas that the media repeats, recycles or replicates
129
Metanarrative
overarching narrative that spans the entire season
130
Mid-Shot
the way newsreaders are generally shot, puts you on the same level as the scene
131
Mimesis
the act of telling a story through representation
132
Mise-en-scene
the collective of everything impacting your decoding
133
Modernism
a perspective in support of modern tendancies and thought
134
Monochrome
all shades of one colour
135
Multi-Perspective Narrative
where stories are told from the point of view of several characters, repurposing the equilibrium as disequilibrium when the story shifts from one character viewpoint to another
136
Multiple Equilibrium/Disequilibrium Stages
where contemporary produces try to produce a rollercoaster effect for audiences by deploying several equilibrium/disequilibrium sequences before resolving in a final transformation, offering audiences multiple moments of narrative calm and excitement
137
Music Video Theory
theory by Andrew Goodwin, who came up with five key aspects of music video construction
138
Myth
a socially or historically determined idea which has become accepted truth
139
Mytheme
a fundamental part of narrative structure, typically involving a relationship between a character event or theme, from which myths are constructed
140
Thought Beats
refers to the synchronisation between music and visuals
141
Narrative and Performance
this explores how the music video is presented to their viewer, whether it focuses more on a narrative or showcasing the artist performing
142
Star Image
this concerns how the music video constructs and reinforces the artist’s public persona, involving how the visual representation of the artist contributes to the artist’s established or desired image through how the artist is displayed to the audience and how the display affects the audience
143
Relation of Visuals to Song
this examines how the visuals relate to the lyrics and overall meaning of the song allowing the visuals to interact with the auditory aspect, eg by illustrating, amplifying or contradicting the song’s message
144
Mythology
3rd order of signification
these shape your understanding of how the world works and/or should be constantly changing
145
Mythology
3rd order of signification
these shape your understanding of how the world works and/or should be constantly changing
146
Technical Aspects of the Music Video
this includes the use of camera angles, editing techniques and other visual effects, which contribute to the overall aesthetic and impact of the music video
147
Narrative
structure of the story
148
Narrative Arc
the progression of a narrative from its start to end, refers to the building of narrative tension until a climactic moment creates a resolution
149
Narrative Climax
usually occurs at the end of a story when the hero faces a final challenge; the knowledge gained by the hero during this battle communicates an ideological message to the story's audience
150
Narrative Image
refers to the set of expectations and persona built for a media product via its marketing which often crafts narrative images that exaggerates genre driven ingredients to target audience interest
151
Narrative Transformation
Todorov argues that heroes often transform their outlooks or attitudes to others in order to complete story quests; these changes model behaviours/outlooks that audiences are encouraged to copy
152
Narration
telling of the story
153
Narrative Opposition
where narratives conventionally culminate in a grand narrative collision so that they might deliver a finale of story excitement for their audiences, simplifying plot through binary presentations
154
Narratology
the study of the way stories are structured. All media products tell stories in some way and there are several elements to the way we consider stories in media products
155
Naturalisation
the process of establishing myths
156
Negative Space
blank space that is left for the subject to move into
157
Non-Diegetic Sound
sound that is not part of the storyworld of the film
158
Open Text
a text which lacks a preferred reading and could lead to several different readings
159
Opposition Effects
Binary oppositions are used in media products to: create compelling narratives, author identifiable character types (heroes & villains) or to simplify explanations
160
Opposition Resolution
refers to the way that binary oppositions are resolved. Strauss tells us that one oppositional state tends to dominate in a narrative and that this offers readers a moral or ideological message
161
Orders of Signification
an idea of Roland Barthes, with signification occurring through denotation and connotation
162
Panning
a basic camera movement where the camera sweeps from one side to the other
163
Paradigm
refers to the meaning area and the focus of the narrative, the media version of a sematic field
164
Paradigmatic Relationship
theory by Saussure that we don’t communicate through isolated signs, but instead meaning is derived through relationships through other signs, eg hot and cold, cottage and home
165
Parallel Action
a narrative device in which two separate scenes are seen as happening at the same time by cutting between the two
166
Patterns
can be naturally occurring or constructed
167
Plot
the content of the story
168
Piggy Backing
where media makers use genre driven features, motifs or tropes from previously successful shows and 'piggyback' on successful genres to help expand their audience reach
169
Point of View Shot
a film editing technique that makes the audience feel that they are seeing the same as the character on screen
170
Political Theory
the theory that politicians maximise their power whilst on the international stage
171
Polysemics
with many meanings
172
Post Colonialism Theory
developed by Paul Gilroy, suggests that media reinforces the notion of ‘the other’, specifically those of ethnic minorities. This links to binary opposites, as in media, white and non-white are seen as binary opposites. Gilroy suggests that this creates a myth of ‘black criminality’
173
Post Modernism
the idea that society has moved beyond modernism
174
Post-Modernism Theory
the theory that media is an integral part of society, which individuals actively use to construct their identities, giving them a sense of playfulness, creativity and unpredictably as they are doing this
175
Post-Structuralism
an extension and critique of structuralism used in textual analysis
176
Pre-Title Sequence
used to hook in the audience from the opening section of a television programme
177
Privileged Oppositions
Strauss tells us that stories rarely construct balanced presentations of binaries. One set of characters or events always dominates. These 'privileged oppositions' often construct ideological messaging
178
Proairetic Codes
'action' based elements within a media text, create excitement and produce moments of emotional intensity in stories
179
Prolepsis
flash forwards
180
Propp's Theory
claims that characters can be classified into certain roles that progress a story because stories are character driven and plots develop from the decision and actions of characters and how they function in a story
181
hero
the person on the quest who the audience follow through the narrative
182
antagonist
the person who struggles to stop the hero in their quest
183
dispatcher
the person that sends the hero on their quest
184
sidekick
the person who offers to help the hero in their quest
185
donor
the person who prepares the hero for their quest, often by gifting them something
186
princess
the person who the hero falls in love with, is often searched for in the quest
187
false hero
the person who initially appears as good but turns out to be evil
188
Psychoanalytical Theory
the theory that media is influencing the human personality, which is formed through inner conflict
189
Quest Narrative
a narrative that sends the central hero on a journey, usually to repair any narrative equilibrium constructed at the start of a story that, when completed, transform heroes
190
Rate of Editing
the amount of cuts in a scene
191
Reflexivity Theory
theory by Jacques Derrida, expands on postmodernism theory, stating that reflexivity and self-consciousness refers to where the audiences are reminded that they’re watching someone watching something; the acknowledgement that the text is created by revealing its underlying structures or staff
192
Register
can be spoken or written, is the range and variety of language used within a product and will change depending on target audience or purpose of the product
193
Repetition
repeating objects, such as piles of fruit or roles of poles
194
Resolved Narrative
a story that has a clear ending
195
Restricted Narrative
when the audience only sees the narrative from the perspective of one character and therefore only knows as much as that character
196
Reverse Shot
a film technique where one character is shown looking at another character and then the other character is shown looking at the character
197
Roland Barthes
theorised the difference between denotation and connotation, with denotation leading to connotation
198
Rule of Space
leave space around your subject
199
Rule of Thirds
subject should be positioned on crosshairs
200
Saturation Effects
media makers inject novelty and difference into genre-driven products when a media market is saturated with the same sorts of products
201
Self-Contained Narrative
when a whole story is told within a single episode
202
Semics
meanings
203
Semiology
study of signs and how they create meanings
204
Semiotics
study of signs
205
Serial
a narrative where the story unfolds over several episodes
206
SFX
Special Effects
graphics techniques that are applied to moving images to create special effects
207
Shot
a single image taken by a camera, or single take of video footage
208
Shot Type
depends on camera framework, shot sizes and camera angles
209
Sign
anything that communicates a meaning that is not the sign itself
210
Signified
refers to the mental concept associated with the sign; for example, the cat signifier evokes a mental image of a domestic animal with fur, legs, whiskers and a tail
211
Signifier
the physical existence/material form of a sign, made up of sound and letters; for example, in the world 'cat', the sounds c, a and t constitute the signifier
212
Signposting
the technique of establishing what the location of a scene is from the beginning; for example, a hospital drama might be signposted by audio of medical equipment or ambulance sirens
213
Simplicity
cut out distractions by getting close and blurring or darkening the background
214
Slogan
a catchy, eye-catching and memorable phrase, often used in advertising
215
Social Taboos
Strauss tells us that myths outline unacceptable or socially taboo behaviours. Media products serve a similar purpose when narratives position audiences to reject some traits as flawed or undesirable
216
Spectacle-Based Genre Pleasure
A viewing pleasure derived from actor performance, usually dancing or movement based. Genres that prompt spectacle-based pleasures include musicals and slapstick comedy
217
Standardisation
the way the repetition of an idea, behaviour or attitude across the media over time can normalise or standardise the idea, behaviour or attitude
218
Static Shot
a shot that is devoid of camera movement
219
Steve Neale
theorised that genre has a relative and dynamic nature, feeding off of stereotypes and repetition, but each time with slight variations or subversions
220
Stigmatisation
process of demonising groups repeatedly through media representation
221
Stock Characters
genres provide familiarity to audiences via the use of stock characters, characters that are common to a particular genre and that share similar physical traits, outlooks or story arcs
222
Storyboard
a visual representation or plan ow how a moving image will be short, typically including a sketch of each frame, camera movements, edits and timing etc.
223
Structuralism
psychology concerned with resolution of the wind into structural elements, rules that shape the narrative of a media or any text
224
Stylistic Opposition
the use of contrasting aesthetic elements using oppositional colour palettes, editing styles, lighting treatments or compositions, for example, might be used to create visual interest
225
Symbol
a sign that has no resemblance to the signifier and the signified; for example, the floppy disk represents the save process
226
Symbolic Sign
a sign that has no resemblance to the signifier and the signified; for example, the floppy disk represents the save process
227
Symmetric Shot
a balanced, symmetrical shot
228
Symmetry
when half of the image is a mirror of the other half
229
Syntagm
refers to the order of shots or events in a media text
230
Syntax
order in which you put words or signs
231
Textual Polysemy
argues that media imagery is often difficult to decode and that audiences regularly interpret products in radically different ways
232
Thesis of Man of Colour
developed by Guatemalan-born Manuel Alvarado, who theorised that characters of ethnic minorities are generally seen as part of four categories: the pitied, the humorous, the exotic and the dangerous
233
Todorov's Narrative Ideal
A story that follows Todorov's equilibrium, disequilibrium and new equilibrium narrative formula; Todorovian narratives tend to work as single character quests and progress chronologically
234
Transitions
how shots are edited together to produce a particular effect, including cuts, wipes and fades
235
Triangles and Diagonals
look for diagonals in a scene, create triangles
236
Units of Action
moments of narrative that are resolved within a scene or situation of the episode
237
Unreliable Narration
deliberately deceive audiences, providing plots that deliver unexpected moments, usually by revealing a character is not who they claim to be
238
Unrestricted Narrative
where the viewer has access to more information than individual characters
239
Viewpoint
where photographs are taken from different angles, either low or high
240
Voice of God
a voiceover or commentary provided by a narrator
241
Voiceover
a segment of narration that is added to a broadcast with the speaker not seen on screen
242
White Space
where there is space free from text and images in magazines and newspapers
243
Wobble Free-Hand Shot
a shot done by a free hand, which shakes
244
Z-Model
states that when looking at a media product such as a poster or a magazine cover, the viewer looks at the top left hand corner, then the top right hand corner, then the bottom left hand corner and then the bottom right hand corner
