Medicine key individuals Flashcards
(241 cards)
1
Q
Hippocrates time period
A
460 BC
2
Q
Hippocrates country
A
Greece
3
Q
Hippocrates job
A
.Initially worked as a doctor then trained future doctors
4
Q
Hippocrates big or small impact? Example
A
.Had a massive impact on medicine, even today newly qualified doctors take a form of the Hippocratic Oath
5
Q
What is the Hippocratic oath?
A
Hippocratic oath – doctors should work for the benefit of patients and must adhere to high standards
6
Q
What did Hippocrates do when it came to treating a new patient?
A
Recorded observations, the symptoms and development of an illness
7
Q
What did Hippocrates point out?
A
Pointed out that systematic approaches to illness meant they were more likely to find the correct cure
8
Q
What did Hippocrates stress? Example
A
Stressed that medical records should be kept for future reference, for example the Hippocratic collection
9
Q
What is the Hippocratic collection?
A
Hippocratic collection – compilation of 70 books that contained detailed lists of symptoms and their treatments, so influential it was in use for hundreds of years
10
Q
What did Hippocrates encourage the use of?
A
Natural treatments and natural explanations
11
Q
What was Hippocrates mean beliefe?
A
4 Humours
12
Q
What were the 4 humours?
A
phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile
13
Q
How are the 4 humours linked to making someone ill?
A
If these 4 humour are imbalanced you will become ill
14
Q
Why did some Greeks at the time reject Hippocrates’ work?
A
Many Greeks rejected his work at the time, instead choosing to believe in Asclepius, the Greek God of medicine
15
Q
Who was Galen?
A
Roman Doctor who travelled from Italy to Greece
16
Q
What did Galen emphasise?
A
Emphasised the importance of Hippocratic methods, especially the role of observation
17
Q
What did Galen use the theory of the four humours to do?
A
Develop the theory of opposites
18
Q
What was the theory of opposites? Example
A
.Theory of opposites – treat an excess of one humour with its exact opposite
.For example, if you had an excess of phlegm (cold and moist) you’d be prescribed a spoonful of hot pepper (hot and dry)
19
Q
Who supported Galen loads and example why
A
.The church supported his beliefs and defended them from any criticism
.Galen said that the body was a perfectly designed machine, church believed in imago dei so aligned with their views so they supported Galen
20
Q
Why is the church supporting Galen a big deal?
A
Church had a massive influence over everyone for a long time, This meant his work was the only authority on medicine for years
21
Q
Who did Galen perform his dissections on?
A
Performed his dissections on pigs, monkeys and dogs
22
Q
Galen’s beliefs on blood and the circulatory system
A
Said that new blood was replaced after it was burnt up and that there were invisible holes in the septum
23
Q
What did Sydenham argue doctors and Physicians need
A
Argued that they need practical hands on experience rather than learning from a book
24
Q
What did Sydenham come up with the idea of and what did this allow him to do
A
Developed the idea of species and type in an illness, which allowed him to improve diagnosis
25
What did Sydenham believe in when it came to diagnosis?
Believed in diagnosis based on symptoms and matching those symptoms to illnesses
26
What is Andreas Vesalius sometimes known as
The founder of modern anatomy
27
When did Vessalius release 'the fabric of the human body'
1543
28
What did Vessalius do and why was this good
.Dissected executed criminals which allowed him to gain a greater understanding of the human body
.Established importance of dissection in future research of the human body
29
What was teaching in medical schools like before Galen, what did this make him believe?
.Before him people watched other dissections of humans, by following Galen’s book, but never undertook their own, but he believed that physicians should undertake their own dissections upon humans
30
What did the printing press allow Vessalius to do?
.Printing press allowed him to print loads of identical copies of his work, so it could be more widely read
31
Where did Vessalius work?
Padua, Italy
32
What did Vessalius show about Galens understanding of anatomy?
He showed that Galen had been right about various aspects but also made many mistakes
33
What did Vessalius show Galen had gotten wrong about the human body?
Galen’s descriptions of liver, jaw, sternum, bile duct and uterus were all wrong
34
What did Vessaius show about the human Jaw bone and breast bone, which was different to Galens ideas
Vesalius showed that the human Jaw bone was made from 1 bone not 2 and that the breastbone had 3 parts, not 7
35
Why was Vessalius still opposed?
His evidence was precise and laid out but still had some opposition since he was shattering long held beliefs and questioning expertise
36
How did Vessalius encourage others, and what did he encourage them to do?
By demonstrating Galen was wrong about some things he encouraged other doctors to undergo their own investigations and dissections
37
What book did Harvey release in 1628?
An Anatomical Disputation concerning the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Living Creatures
38
What was An Anatomical Disputation concerning the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Living Creatures about?
described accurately for the first time how blood was pumped around the body by the heart
39
When was An Anatomical Disputation concerning the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Living Creatures released and by who?
1628 by William Harvey
40
What did Harvey do?
Disproved Galen’s points about blood, which had been widely accepted for over 1500 years
.His work gave a fundamental understanding on the hearts function inside of the body
41
Where did Harvey study and work and what as
Studied medicine in Cambridge, England and Padua, Italy before becoming a doctor in London and later serving the King of England Charles I
42
How did Harvey make his discoveries?
He made his discoveries through dissection, observation and experiments
43
What were Harvey's discoveries?
He found that valves in veins only allowed blood to flow towards the heart, he then went on to calculate the volume of blood travelling around the human body in an hour
He also said that blood must be taken away from the heart through arteries and brought back in veins
44
What were Harvey's conclusions?
.He concluded that there was too much blood for it to be constantly reproduced, so it must be the same blood being pumped around the body several times an hour
45
Why were Harvey's ideas not immediately accepted?
Not immediately accepted by all despite clear observational evidence, since it contradicts the work of Galen which had been taught to medical scholars for centuries
46
What could Harvey not explain, and how was this eventually solved?
Harvey could not explain how blood moved from the arteries to the veins, capillaries were only discovered when the microscope was developed
47
How do you know Harvey had good ideas?
Within 50 years his work was being taught in medical schools
48
What did Harvey pave the way for?
Paved the way for physiology
49
What is physiology
investigations into the workings of the body
50
What do physiologists do?
Physiologists build upon Harvey’s work and explain things that he would not have been able to
51
What did Henry VIII do?
He caused the dissolution of the monastries
52
What was the dissolution of the monasteries
Henry VIII ordered the closing of the monasteries across England, Wales and Ireland
53
When was the dissolution of the monasteries?
1536
54
How long did the dissolution of the monasteries last?
4 years
55
Why was the dissolution of the monasteries a problem?
In the process many hospitals were lost, so new ones needed to be founded
56
Since many hospitals were lost in the dissolution of the monasteries, what opened instead?
Charity hospitals were opened
57
Who staffed charity hospitals?
Volunteer staff
58
Who were the charity hospitals accessible to?
The poor
59
Why weren't charity hospitals that good?
since so many people were ill not everybody received treatment
60
Describe the disease of small pox
Small pox started as a rash but turned into pus-filled blisters, if these infected the lungs brain or heart then death was certain
61
Who brought the idea of inoculation to Britain and when?
Mary Wortley Montagu introduced the idea of inoculation to Britain in 1718
62
Why was inoculation both good and bad?
Inoculation was good since many survived and were protected from future small pox outbreaks but some were not so lucky and also the poor could not afford it
63
When did Edward Jenner come up with his method of protecting people from small pox?
1796
64
What was Jenner a key believer in?
He was a key believe in the scientific method (observation and experiment)
65
What did Jenner realise about dairy maids and what did this lead him to believe?
.He had learnt that Dairy Maids were much less likely to catch small pox, but they did contract a different, weaker disease called cow pox
.Edward was convinced that this cow pox gave them protection from small pox
66
Who did Jenner test his theory on?
a young boy called James Phipps
67
What was Jenners experiment and result?
Edward took pus from a cowpox sore and rubbed it on James, this gave him cow pox, he survived and later got given a dosage of small pox, but he did not catch the disease
68
How many times did Jenner repeat his experiment?
.He repeated the experiment 23 more times
69
Who refused to publish Jenners ideas so what did he have to do?
The RSS refused to publish his ideas so he had to do it himself
70
Why were some people against Jenners vaccines?
.Some people were against Jenner as the inoculation business was making them money and they wanted to keep making money
71
What could Jenner not do and why was this bad?
.Jenner could not explain how or why his vaccination worked, so people could not build upon his work, so the next vaccine wasn’t discovered till 1880
72
When did the government make vaccinations against smallpox compulsory?
Government made vaccinations compulsory in the 1850’s
73
Who did Jenner have the backing of?
Had backing of many powerful people, like members of the British royal family and napoleon
74
When did small pox become eradicated?
The WHO announced the eradication of Small pox in 1980
75
How big were the microscopes in 1830?
.In 1830 there was a microscope with magnification of 1000x
76
Could people see bacteria before Pasteur?
could see bacteria, but they did not know what they were
77
What was the main theory at the time of Pasteur?
Spontaneous generation
78
What was spontaneous generation
a theory that micro-organisms were created as something decayed – believed that this was also how maggots appeared
79
What was the main cause of disease believed to be around the time of Pasteur?
Miasma
80
What nationality was pastuer
french
81
When did Pasteur question spontaneous generation
1850's
82
Who hired Pasteur to do what job which lead to his discovery
.A brewery company had hired him to figure out why all their alcohol as going off so quickly
83
What did Pasteur see when he looked through a microscope?
When he looked through a microscope he found many microorganisms reproducing frequently
84
Why did Pasteur call them germs
They were growing so rapidly and multiplying so frequently that he called the ‘germs’ short for ‘germinating’
85
What did Pasteur begin to suspect after the initial look with a microscope
.He began to suspect that germs were not in fact the product of decay, but more so in fact responsible for it
86
Where did Pasteur feel the microbes came from in the brewery?
.He felt they may have fallen from the air and dust spores into the brewery’s fermentation tanks
87
What was Pasteurs experiment and conclusion
he put a nutrient rich broth into the swan neck glass, he boiled it to kill off the existing micro-organisms, if the flask remained upright the contents remained unaffected, but if he broke the neck of the glass to allow micro-organisms in the broth would turn sour and the germs would quickly multiply
88
What did Pasteur find with air and how it affected his experiment
.He tested the experiment on different airs around France and found that clean dust free air caused less fermentation than dirty city air
89
When did Pasteur publish 'Germ Theory'
1861
90
What where the 4 parts to 'germ theory'
The air is full of microbes, there are more microbes in some areas, microbes can decay and they can be killed by heating
91
How is Pasteur's idea of killing microbes with fire still in today's life
His ideas of killing the microbes with fire have influenced modern life, even in the process of killing bacteria in the milk industry (even shares his name ‘pasteurisation’) this slow heating makes milk safer to drink
92
What did Pasteur prove in 1865 and what did this lead him to believe
In 1865 he proved that the was a disease killing silkworms that were needed for the silk industry
.This lead him to believing that germs and microorganisms lead to humans being kill
93
What else did Pasteur had a role in and how did he start
.He also had a role in the field of immunology, the development of new vaccines – he began with chicken choler which was a big problem for French farmers at the time
94
Who was the chicken cholera vaccine discoverer
.Discovered by chance by Charles Chamberland, a member of Pasteur’s team
95
Describe how the chicken cholera vaccine was discvovered
Charles Chamberland,
.He was given a liquid culture of the disease to inject into the chickens before he went on holiday
.He forgot and did it as soon as he got back, but the chickens did not contract the disease and when infected with a fresher version they did not die
.His team realised that the air had weakened the germs to the point where they did not kill but instead gave immunity
96
Context on Koch
Born in Germany in 1853 and greatly admired the work of Pasteur, especially his germ theory
97
How are Koch and Pasteur different
Unlike Pasteur, who was a scientist, Koch was a doctor
98
What was Koch especially interested in?
He was especially interested in the disease anthrax, which can kill both animals and humans
99
What did the government give Koch and why?
The government gave him a lab and team of bacteriologists to investigate anthrax since it was so severe
100
What two 'm' 's was Koch?
.He was extremely meticulous and methodical
101
What wasn't Koch happy with and why?
Wasn’t happy with how bacteria was grown at the time, it was grown in liquids which meant it could move around and make it more difficult to observe
102
What was Kochs team the first to do?
Koch’s team was the first to use a solid, agar jelly, which was taken from seaweed to grow bacteria, it kept them still but provided them with enough nutrients to grow
103
How did Koch pioneer new ways to see microbes
dyes to distinguish the microbes
104
Describe Koch's experiment and conclusion
.He took the anthrax bacterium from a dead sheep, isolated it and injected it into mouse 1, when it died he cu it open, took out the bacterium and injected it again into mouse 2, this went on till he had infected 20 mice with the same bacterium and result, this meant he was certain that the microbe was causing anthrax
105
Koch did not discover a cure but what did he do?
He did not discover a cure, but he was the first to show a clear method that proved a connection between a specific microbe and a corresponding disease
106
What happened in 1885 to Koch
Wrote down all his methods and conclusions but in 1885 an international panel rejected his work
107
What did many people do even though an international panel had rejected Koch's work?
still many realised the benefits of his approach and began copying his methods
108
What did Koch go on to identify?
He went on to identify the microbes for tuberculosis and cholera
109
What did other scientists use Koch's methods to do?
Other scientists used his methods to discover the microbes for leprosy, typhoid and diphtheria
110
What could happen after scientists had identified microbes
vaccinations could be developed for them
111
What did the work of Koch and Pasteur do?
.The work of Pasteur and Koch paved the way for microbiologists and the study of bacteriology
112
How do we know Koch's work was so important?
Koch’s work was seen as so important that he received a Nobel prize for it in medicine in 1905
113
What was used to dull the pain in surgery before Simpson?
Opium, hypnotism, alcohol and even a blow to the head had been used to try and dull the pain of surgery
114
What did Humpry Davy's find in his experiment ? and when was it?
1799, Humphry Davys’s experimented with nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and found that it dulled the pain of his wisdom tooth
115
When and how did Davy's publish his findings?
.He published his findings in ‘researches, chemical and philosophical’ in 1800 but took his observations no further
116
When was Ether used and by who?
In 1846 William Morton used Ether in teeth removal surgery
117
Why wasn't ether good?
but ether is highly flammable so posed serious problems, especially since light for surgeries at the time was provided via candle, it also irritated the lungs and could make people cough (a risky move during surgery)
118
James Simpson context
.James Simpson was a Scottish doctor who set out a way to ease the pain of childbirth
119
How is Simpson different to all the other scientists
Not very methodical, he would just get a bunch of friends together to inhale some chemicals to see if they would work, this is extremely dangerous and it is amazing that they survived
120
When did Simpson experiment with chloroform?
1847
121
How did Simpson test chloroform
.In 1847 he experimented with chloroform with 2 of his colleagues in his dining room, when he awoke he discovered he may have found a more effective anaesthetic than ether
122
What did chloroform greatly reduce the risk of
The patient going into shock
123
Why was chloroform met with much resistance? example
it was dangerous if not correctly administered, for example in 1848 Hannah Greener fatally overdosed on chloroform when having a toe nail removed, so the use of the chemical was met with much resistance
124
Who solved the dosage problem with chloroform?
John Snow
125
How did John Snow solve the chloroform dosage problem? example
John Snow found a solution to this in the form of an inhaler, it controlled the dosage and was successful with helping Queen Victoria in 1853 for the birth of her 8th child
126
What did Queen Victoria do after using chloroform and what was the effect
Queen Victoria called it ‘that blessed chloroform’ and after that criticism stopped
127
Why was chloroform not necessarily good?
.But because it was so effective surgeons became more ambitious with their surgeries, occasionally operating when not necessary, this is bad as it meant more germs could access the bodies and more people started to die after operations from infections.
128
Before Lister what did many surgeons do?
many surgeons prided themselves on never washing their equipment or aprons
129
Why was Ignaz Semmelweis ridiculed by his colleagues?
.Ignaz Semmelweis was ridiculed by his colleagues because he made medical students wash their hands, he even provided a basin and sterilising solution for the process,
Most people thought he was mad
130
What happened to the death rates in Ignaz Semmeweis' wards?
fell from 12% to 1%
131
When and how did Ignaz Semmeweis die?
He died from blood poisoning in 1865
132
What did Lister start theorising?
and theorised that maybe blood poisoning in wounds was caused by similar ones to the microbes that turned Pasteur’s broth sour
133
When did Lister start theorising?
1865
134
Why did Lister start theorising
Lister began researching Pasteur’s germ theory
135
What did Lister set out to do?
Destroy the microbes causing the blood poisining
136
What was Listers eureka moment?
His eureka moment came when a colleague was walking through his ward and called out ‘this place smells like a sewer’, this reminded Lister of carbolic acid which is used to treat waste, he wondered if carbolic acid could kill germs and prevent blood poisoning
137
What did Lister begin to do with Carbolic acid and what was it the start of?
He began cleaning his hands with it, spraying it around the surgery and soaking bandaged in it that went over the wound – this was the beginning of anti-septic techniques in surgery
138
How did the death rates fall due to Lister
Death rates from surgery fell from 46% in 1864-1866 to 15% in 1867-1870
139
Lister and compound fractures
.He also found he could treat compound fractures using carbolic acid, typically people suffered gangrene and died after this, but after Lister they didn’t
140
Why did some people not like Carbolic acid?
Some people didn’t like the smell of carbolic acid and the impact on hands
141
what wasn't Lister good at?
.Lister wasn’t good at communicating his theories but still the evidence was soon undeniable,
142
What is aspesis?
techniques for keeping germs entirely away from surgery
143
Name some examples of sexism against women in the renaissance era
During the renaissance era women could not attend university and were demonized as witches for handing out herbal remedies
144
Where did women play a key role in medical care?
In the home, they would usually use herbal remedies that have been passed down through the generations to treat their family
145
Which medical profession did women play a significant role in?
Nursing
146
What was nursing seen as?
.Nursing was seen as a lowly occupation, they were thought about as uneducated and slovenly, they were often stereotyped as heavy drinkers
.They usually worked in appalling conditions and there was no proper training available
147
What was Florence Nightingale the first women to do?
.Florence nightingale was the first person to significantly alter the role of women in medicine
148
Where did Florence come from and why is this significant?
She came from a wealthy 19th century family, so was expected to follow tradition and marry to become a housewife
149
What did Florence want to become and why was this significant?
But she had other ideas, instead she became a nurse – which conflicted with the stereotype of nurses being uneducated drinking working class girls
150
When was the Crimean war?
1854-1856
151
What did Florence do during the Crimean war?
Florence reorganised the hospital in scutari, insisting on cleanliness
.She demanded clean linens, good food and fresh air for the patients
152
When Florence took charge of hygiene in the hospital in Scutari how did the death rates drop?
.This resulted in deaths in the hospital falling from 42% to 2%
153
What did Florence write her ideas down in and when were these published?
She put her ideas in the books ‘notes on hospitals’ and ‘notes on nursing’ which were published after the war in 1859
154
Apart from nursing, what else did Florence influence and how?
.She also influenced the training of nurses throughout the UK, by setting up a school for nurses in 1860
155
What effect did Florence have on the profession of nursing?
the profession became more professional and easier for women to take up
156
How was Florence a role model to women?
.She was a role model to women as she exerted her influence over powerful members of the army and government, showing other women what could be achieved through determination
157
Who was Mary Seacole?
Mary Seacole, a black Jamaican nurse, who suffered a huge amount of racism and sexism but proved to be exceptional in her field
158
What did Mary Seacole do in the Crimean war?
set up her own British hotel to assist those wounded on the battle field
159
Who and when was first British female doctor?
1865, Elizabeth Garret Anderson
160
What did Elizabeth Garret Anderson and when with who?
.1874 She cofounded the London School of Medicine for Women with Sophia Jex-Blake
161
Describe the effects of cholera on the body
.Cholera made the victim suffer from violent vomiting and diarrhoea within the hour, until they took on a blueish colour due to dehydration, this subsequently brought on cramps and uncontrollable spasms, they would slip into a coma and die – but spasms often continued during death. The thing could last between a few hours and a few days
162
How many lives did an 1848 epidemic of cholera claim?
52,000 lives
163
Why were lower classes more likely to catch cholera?
.The lower classes often lived crowded in slums and all drank the same water which was mixed with human filth
164
What did some early 19th century doctors believe to be the cause of cholera?
.Early 19th century doctors knew little about the cause of cholera, some believed it was transmitted by miasmas or poisonous gases that originated from sewage and rotting corpses
165
Why were traditional treatments not good against the cholera?
.Most doctors still gave out treatments based on the four humours – purging would not have helped here
166
When did John Snow make his breakthrough?
1854
167
When did Snow begin investigating?
1848
168
What was Snow's first theory?
that cholera was cause by digestion, he theorised that is was caught by swallowing the water contaminated by the faeces of another cholera victim
169
Where did Snow gain his proof?
He gained proof for his theory in the cholera outbreak of 1854, where he investigated an epidemic near his home in Soho, London
170
How many lives did the Soho epidemic take?
it claimed 500 lives in 10 days
171
What did Snow begin to suspect as the cause of the Soho epidemic?
.He began to suspect that a pump on Broad Street was to blame
172
How did Snow prove his suspicions of the Broad Street pump?
when he mapped out the deaths caused by cholera on a map, he compiled statistics on who had died of cholera and what water supply they used.
173
What did Snow find when he mapped his results?
He found that over 80% of cholera sufferers had used the pump on Broad Street
174
Which lady proved Snow's results, how?
One lady who suffered lived near other pumps but insisted on drinking from the Broad Street pump because she liked the taste
175
What happened to the Broad Street pump?
.The evidence was so compelling that the handle of the water pump was removed
176
What was the cause of the Soho epidemic of cholera?
A year later it was discovered that the nappy of an infected baby had been emptied into the cesspool on Broad Street, it was in such a state of disrepair that it seeped into the drinking water
177
What did some doctors still believe about Cholera after the Soho epidemic?
Some doctors still believed that it was caused by miasmas, despite Snow’s compelling evidence
178
When was Snow's evidence proved?
.When Robert Koch determined the precise cause of cholera in 1883 Snow’s evidence was proved without a doubt
179
Why were Magic Bullets so good?
Before these there were no effective cures that could kill bacteria once it was active within the body
180
Who was Paul Ehrlich?
Paul Ehrlich was a German physician and scientist who was the first to come up with a way to kill germs within the body
181
What did Paul Ehrlich develop the idea of?
– he developed the concept of ‘magic bullets’ after studying how antibodies seek out specific germs in a human body and kill them
182
When did Ehrlich's team discover the first magic bullet?
His team succeeded in 1909
183
What was the first magic bullet?
Salvarsan 606
184
How did Salvarsan 606 get its name?
their 606th attempt
185
What did their Salversan 606 treat?
sought out and destroyed the bacteria that caused syphilis, Ehrlich found that test participants suffering from syphilis could recover if they used the drug
186
When was Salversan 606 on the market?
By 1910 Salvarsan was on the market and widely distributed
187
What were the effects of Salversan 606?
it was painful to administer and could kill the patient if given in the wrong dose, it wasn’t very soluble so didn’t work very quickly
188
Which drug was released after Salversan 606 which lessened the side effects? When was i released?
By 1911 there was a new drug released, Neosalvarsan which addressed many side effects
189
When was the 2nd magic bullet discovered?
In 1932, 23 years after the discovery of the first magic bullet
190
Who discovered the 2nd magic bullet?
Gerhard Domagk
191
What was the second magic bullet?
Prontosil
192
What did Prontosil treat?
attacked the bacteria associated with Blood poisoning, meningitis, flesh-eating infection, bacterial pneumonia and more
193
What type of drug was Prontosil classed as?
it was the first drug classed as a sulphonamide
194
Why was there still a demand for stronger magic bullets?
.Staphylococcus was resistant to sulphonamide drugs so there was still a demand for a stronger magic bullet
195
Who first used penicillin?
Joseph Lister
196
When did Joseph Lister first use penicillin?
1871
197
What did Joseph Lister notice when he started to use penicillin?
he saw that cultured mould seemed to weaken certain microbes
198
Joseph Lister stopped looking into Penicillin, when did it start to get developed again?
1920’s and 30’s
199
What did Lister do in 1873?
Used Penicillin to treat a nurse
200
Where did Fleming go during WW1 and what did he see?
Fleming went to France during WW1 and saw that there was no way to effectively treat infections
201
Where did Fleming go after WW1?
.He returned to London after the war to continue his studies
202
How and when did Fleming discover penicillin?
.In 1928 he returned from holiday to examine the dishes of staphylococci bacteria he had been studying
203
What did Fleming notice on the dishes of staphylococci bacteria?
.He noticed that some of the dishes had grown mould, and where there was mould the staphylococci bacteria was either entirely gone or vastly reduced
204
Why did Fleming name Penicillin Penicillin?
From its Latin name Penicillium
205
What did Fleming discover in his series of experiments?
.Fleming did a series of experiments in which he discovered that if the mould was properly diluted it killed the bacteria without harming other cells
206
Which bacteria did Fleming find Penicillin was useful against?
It was useful in killing the bacteria associated with Anthrax, Meningitis and Diphtheria
207
When and how did Fleming note down his discoveries?
In 1929 he wrote his discoveries down into a medical journal, but it was ignored by the medical world
208
Why was Flemings findings ignored?
.He had failed to test his theories on animals or humans, and there was no evidence of penicillin’s usefulness
209
Who was Florey?
.Florey was the professor of pathology at Oxford University
210
When and who did Florey team up with to do what?
.In 1938 he teamed up with Chain to research the germ killing properties of Penicillin
211
Who did Florey and chain do to for a first grant?
British government but they only gave them £25
212
How much did the American government give Florey and Chain?
funded 5 years of research
213
What did Florey and Chain do in 1940?
.By 1940 they had produced penicillin in a form that they could test on mice, which had been injected with an infection called streptococci
214
What did Florey and Chain do in 1941?
.In 1941 they had produced enough to test on a policeman called Albert Alexander, who had contracted septicaemia, a type of blood poisoning
215
How did the penicillin trial with the police man go?
.The trial was a success and penicillin began to attack the infection, however they ran out of penicillin and the patient died
216
Why couldnt Florey and Chain gain a grant from the UK government for the production of penicillin?
funding was too tight during the 2nd world war
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When did the US government agree to help the manufacture of penicillin?
1942
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Why did the US government agree to help the manufacture of penicillin?
– it realised the potential to save a lot of soldiers’ lives during the Second World War
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How did the US government agree to help the manufacture of penicillin?
offered interest free loans for companies seeking to produce it
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Who soon copied the US' idea of offering interest free loans for companies seeking to produce penicillin?
The British government
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How successful was penicillin, example
.Mass production was a success and enough penicillin was produced to save thousands of lives, in 1944 2 million doses were given to allied forces wounded in D-Day
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What was penicillin the first?
First anti-biotic
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Which bacteria has become resistant to penicillin?
Bacteria such as MRSA has become resistant to it's effects
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Why are Franklin, Wilkins, Crick and Watson so important?
.Played a huge role in the discovery of DNA
| .The discovery of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) was one of the biggest breakthroughs of the 20th centuries
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Where were Crick and Watson working and when?
.1951, Crick and Watson are working together at the Medical Research Council Unit in Cambridge
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Where were Wilkins and Franklin working and when?
At the same time as Crick and Wastson, Franklin and Wilkins were also studying DNA in Kings College, London
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What were Crick and Watson studying?
They began studying the structure of DNA, what they believed to be the molecule containing all of the hereditary information for cells,
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What did Franklin do?
Franklin used X-ray diffraction to study it, working with a student she managed to obtain 2 set high resolution photos of crystallised DNA fibres
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How did Crick and Watson use Franklin and Wilkins work?
Although they didn’t work together, Crick and Watson used Franklin and Wilkins research to inform their own, specifically their high quality photographs
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What did Crick and Watson do?
.Crick and Watson built am X-ray which allowed them to work out the 3D structure of DNA
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When did Crick and Watson publish their research, what had they discovered?
.In 1953 they published their research, they had discovered the molecular structure of DNA (the double helix shape)
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What was Crick and Watson's model used to explain?
The model Crick and Watson discovered was used to explain how DNA worked and how hereditary information was stored within it
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How do we know the work was significant?
1962, Crick, Watson and Wilkins were awarded the noble prize for medicine for their discovery of the structure of DNA
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Why was Franklin not given the noble prize? What else about her work is unfair?
Franklin was not given the award as she had died in 1958, also her contribution of the two sets of photographs had a huge significance but was ignored till much later
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Where, when and who for the Human Genome Project
.1990– led by Watson - at the American National Institute of Health
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What was the Human Genome Project?
Mapping every gene in the human body
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When did scientists release their first draft of the human genome project? What did it do?
.By 2000 scientists had released their first drafts, they provided an insight into the complex nature of genes
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When was the last update to the human genome project?
2003
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Why is understanding human genes important?
.Understanding human genes is important in treatment and diagnosis of diseases
.They provide information about inherited diseases and illnesses like Asthma
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How many genetic conditions are there?
More than 10,000
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What can tests and screenings now do?
advancements in science have allowed for the development of tests for genetic conditions, these can be performed on the foetus before birth
.Tests can also reveal if someone is carrying a condition without showing any symptoms, or if they’re likle to develop one in later life
