medicine through time Flashcards
(153 cards)
1
Q
how much did an apothecary cost?
A
cost less money than a physician
2
Q
who was Hippocrates?
A
an ancient Greek doctor
3
Q
what training did apothecaries have?
A
received training but no medical qualifications
4
Q
what are some religious and supernatural methods to prevent illness in the middle ages?
A
living a Christian life e.g praying
chanting incantations
carrying lucky charms or amulets
self punishment such as being a flagellent
5
Q
how much did physician cost?
A
expensive, mainly used by the wealthy
6
Q
how much would people at home cost?
A
‘wise women’ (lady of the manor) would tend to people for free
7
Q
what were the symptoms of the black death?
A
swelling of the lymph glands into large lumps filled with pus
fever and chills
headache
vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain
8
Q
who was Thomas Sydenham?
A
worked as a doctor in London during the 1660s and 70s
9
Q
ho was the black death passed around?
A
bubonic plague was passed to humans when an infected flea bites them and the disease enters their blood
10
Q
why did people think god caused disease?
A
the church taught and people believed that god made them ill because he was either displeased with them or was testing their faith
11
Q
what was the black death?
A
the black death was the bubonic plague, carried by fleas living on black rats
12
Q
what were hospitals?
A
were places of recuperation rather than places where patients were treated for disease
places where travelers and pilgrims stayed on their journeys
13
Q
who were hospitals run by?
A
were mainly run by the church so the emphasis was on god and healing souls
14
Q
what did Galen do?
A
wrote many books- these were the basis of medical training in the middle ages
developed Hippocrates ideas- the theory of opposites
he used bloodletting or purging to prevent disease
drew anatomy diagrams- by operating on dead/live animals
15
Q
what is astrology?
A
the alignment of planets and stars was thought to cause some diseases
16
Q
who was Vesalius?
A
he studied medicine in Paris (1533)
17
Q
what does Renaissance mean?
A
rebirth
18
Q
what training did physicians have?
A
medically trained at university and passed exams
19
Q
how did people in the home treat the sick?
A
a female family member would use their own knowledge
20
Q
how much did a barber-surgeon cost?
A
cost less than a physician
21
Q
what did the government do to prevent people getting ill after 1948?
A
funding more testing and vaccinations
better disposal of rubbish and sewage
laws reducing air and water pollution
22
Q
what did discovering the structure of DNA lead to?
A
a better understanding of some genetic conditions
predicting whether individuals are at higher risk of developing some cancers
the discovering that stem cells can be grown into different cells
23
Q
what were the disadvantages of Jenner?
A
he didn’t know why it worked
the link between cow pox and small pox was unique so it didnt lead to other vaccinations
other diseases were still killing people
24
Q
what was a disadvantage in hospital care during the 18th and 19th century?
A
the elderly, sick or disabled were forced to enter workhouses
25
what did doctors use to ease pain during operations before 1800?
alcohol and opium which had very low success rates
26
what new pieces of technology were invented in the 1900s?
labatories to test skin or blood
x-rays
monitors to see what is going on over a period of time
27
what did Howard Florey and Ernest Chain do?
they carried on Flemings research, they found it to be effective on mice so they tested in on humans and they found it was a 'miracle drug' in 1940
28
how did apothecaries treat the sick?
mixed medicines and ointments based on their own knowledge or directions of a physician
29
what was purging?
purging was when apothecaries or wise women made a patient vomit or made them go to the toilet to remove food from the body (to get rid of excess humors)
30
what did Gerhard Domagk do?
in 1932, he developed the second magic bullet, prontosil which cured some types of blood poisoning
31
what were the changes in physicians and scientists?
physicians stopped using astrology charts for diagnosis and timing treatments
physicians realized that urine was not a good indicator of disease and stopped using urine charts for diagnosis
physicians carried out more direct observations and examinations of their patient
32
what did the invention of the printing press mean?
meant that many copies of texts could be produced in a short amount of time
it reduced the churches control of ideas (could no longer prevent the publication of ideas it did not approve of)
it meant ideas and theories could be spread around quicker and could be proved or dismissed
33
how did people try and avoid catching the black death?
praying and fasting-it made sense to show god they were sorry by punishing themselves
cleaning up rubbish in the streets
smelling their toilets and other bad smells in the belief this would overcome the plague
lighting a fire in the room, ringing bells or having birds fly around the room to keep air moving
carrying herbs and spices to avoid breathing in 'bad air'
not letting unknown people enter the town or village
34
what were the changes in hospital care?
treating more sick people and were being used less by travelers and pilgrims
in the 1700s when hospitals reopened they were run by physicians
35
when was the NHS founded?
1948
36
what did Florence Nightingale do?
she lead a team of nurses at the military hospital in Scutari during the Crimean war (1854-56)
emphasized good hygiene, though this was because she believed that miasma caused disease
she published books on nursing and hospital organization and set up a training school for nurses
37
when did vaccinations become compulsory?
1853
38
what did the NHS mean?
```
certain services were free:
seeing a GP
hospital care and operations
health visitors for pregnant women and young children
ambulance and emergency treatment
health care for the elderly
```
39
when did the first cholera epidemic in Britain occur?
1831
40
what did Louis Pasteur do?
in 1861 he proved that microbes (bacteria or germs) in the air cause decay (he discovered this when investigating why liquids turned sour for the brewing industry)
he also theorized that germs caused disease but was unable to prove this
accidently found that vaccination prevent disease
41
what are some examples of new technology in the 20th and 21st century?
```
hypodermic needles
microscopes
x-rays
endoscopes
pacemakers
```
42
what was wrong with the germ theory?
it took a long time for doctors surgeons to believe the germ theory and accept new ideas
43
what did Robert Koch?
he proved that Pasteur's theory was right, that microbes caused disease as well as decay
he also identified the specific microbes that caused TB in 1882 and cholera in 1883
he developed a new easier way of growing bacteria on agar jelly
he discovered that chemical dyes stained bacteria, which made them easier to see under the microscope
44
what were the changes in ideas about what caused disease in the Renaissance?
fewer people believed in supernatural or religious causes of disease
new ideas were suggested such as seeds in the air spreading disease
the reduced influence of the church
a scientific approach to diagnosing illness
45
how were social attitudes towards science changing in the 18th and 19th century?
there was an increasing awareness of the need for rational explanations for the cause of disease
46
give three improvements to hospital care in the 18th and 19th century's
hospital cleanliness and organization improved and nurses were better trained
specialist hospitals developed
public pressure led to infirmaries were being set up for the poorest in society
47
what sis Alexander Fleming do?
in 1928 he discovered that penicillium mold produced an excellent antibiotic penicillin
he published his findings but did not think it would work on humans in 1929
48
what happened in 1909 that made an advance in medicine?
Paul Ehrlich and Dr Hata had found an antibiotic to fight back against Syphilis
49
how did people think the black death was caused?
religion
astrology- the position of mars, Jupiter and Saturn was unusual at the time
miasma
volcanoes- poisonous gases from European volcanoes and earthquakes carried in the air
four humors
outsiders- strangers or witches had caused the disease
50
what did Vesalius do?
carried out a large number of disections on human bodies
he made many discoveries on how the body worked
he made the study of anatomy fashionable
he proved that some of Galens work was incorrect (helped more people question Galen)
he encouraged and inspired others to carry out dissections and made further discoveries
his work was widely published in England and throughout Europe
51
what were the disadvantages of using carbolic acid in surgery?
it irritated the skin and lungs
52
what was the great stink?
in 1858 London's river (the Thames) was filled with rubbish and waste. It was also very hot
this lead to a new series of sewers to be built, these were designed by Bazalgettes
53
what were the 4 main relay posts in the chain of evacuation?
regimental aidposts
dressing stations
casualty clearing stations
base hospitals
54
what were the FANY?
worked as field ambulances
55
what are the 4 humors?
yellow bile
black bile
phlegm
blood
56
when did the great plague hit Britain?
1665
57
what percentage of Europe was killed by the black death?
30-60%
58
what types of gas were used?
mustard gas and tear gas which inflamed the throat, lungs and could kill soldiers
59
why was there so little change in medicine during the middle ages?
the church had control of what people thought and how they could act. This prevented change because a lot of libraries and books were in mosks and churches which chose what people read.
60
who invented the Thomas splint?
Hugh Owen Thomas which treated femur bone fractures and reduced blood loss
61
who invented plastic surgery?
Harold Gillies
62
what was entrenching?
many soldiers digging in a line
63
what was the support trench?
where troops would retreat too from the frontline
- second line of defense
- contained first aid stations
63
what was the support trench?
where troops would retreat too from the frontline
- second line of defense
- contained first aid stations
64
why would wounds get infected?
because they weren't cleaned quickly, leading to sepsis
65
what was tunneling?
similar to sapping but left earth on top
66
when were the main battles in WW1?
the battle of Somme in 1916
| the battles of Arras, Ypres and Cambrai in 1917
67
what was sapping?
1 man digging outwards
68
what percentage of people were killed by the great plague in London?
25% was killed
69
who was Lister influenced by?
Pasteur's germ theory
70
what was the royal society?
it was founded in 1660 and was supported by King Charles II.
| -journal was philosophical transactions
71
what was one way people tried to cure Scrofola?
in Europe people believed the kings touch could cure it
72
what was inoculation?
injecting someone with the puss from a disease
73
when was William Harvey?
1628
74
what were the disadvantages of John Snow?
- his recommendations weren't put in place until 1875
| - many people did not believe his theory
75
what types of gas were used?
mustard and tear gas which irritated the lungs and throats and could kill a soldier
76
what were the changes in hospital care?
-were treating more ill people
-in the 1700s when hospitals reopened they were run by physicians instead of the church
-were used less for travelers and pilgrims by 1700
-
77
when did the great plague hit Britain?
1665
78
what percentage of Europe were killed by the black death?
30-60%
79
who invented plastic surgery?
Harold Gillies
80
what was the support trench?
were soldiers retreated from the frontline
- second line of defense
- had first aid stations
81
who invented the Thomas splint?
Hugh Owen Thomas, the splint reduced blood loss and treated femur bone fractures
82
what was entrenching?
soldiers digging in a line
83
why would wounds get infected?
because they weren't cleaned quick enough leading to sepsis
84
what was tunneling?
similar to sapping but left earth on top
85
who was William Harvey and what did he do?
- he discovered the process of blood circulation
- he taught the importance of doctors observing and recording
- carried out a lot of public dissections
- he wrote a book called 'the anatomy of the human body'
86
when were the main battles in WW1?
- the battle of Somme in 1916
| - the battles of Arras, Ypres and Cambrai in 1917
87
what was sapping?
one man digging outwards
88
when was Versailles book published?
the fabric of the human body was published in 1543
89
what were the treatments for the great plague based on?
magic, superstition and religion
90
what did Thomas Sydenham do?
- He published 'observation medicae' which outlined his theories and observations
- he didnt use textbooks when making a diagnosis instead he recorded and observed the patients symptoms
- he based treatments on the disease as a whole and didnt treat individual symptoms
- he believed that a disease had nothing to do with the nature of the person that had it
91
how did people try and prevent the plague?
- governments quarantined people who had the plague to try and prevent the spread
- people avoided touching each other
- red crosses were drawn on the doors of people who had it along with the words 'lord have mercy upon us'
- the government ordered the slaughtering of cats and dogs because they believed they carried the plague
92
what were the RAMY?
used chain of evacuation to move injured soldiers from the frontline to medical areas
93
what were the problems with surgery in the 1800s?
- pain
- infection
- blood loss
94
why did the black death affect towns the worst?
because the rats would come off of the boats and go into towns, they were more likely to live in towns with lots of waste and rubbish which in the middle ages was a given.
95
when was John Snow?
1848-1854
96
what was the reserve trench?
where soldiers were stationed for counter attack
97
when did Pasteur publish his germ theory?
1861
98
what was hospital treatment based off of in the renaissance?
the 4 humors
99
what was the 'regimen sanitatis'?
a loose set of instructions provided by physicians
100
what did Wilhelm Rontgen do?
discovered x-rays which helped to locate bullets and shrapnel lodged in the wounds of soldiers during WW1 in 1895
101
what did Dr Barnard do?
he performed the first heart transplant with a team of experienced doctors in 1967
102
what was the frontline trench?
where attacks were launched from
103
when was aseptic surgery established?
by 1900
104
how did people try and avoid catching the black death?
- self punishment-it made sense to show god that they were sorry by punishing themselves
- smelling their toilets and other bad smells in the belief that this would overcome the plague
- lighting a fire, ringing bells and having birds fly around the room to try and keep air moving
- holding herbs and spices to try and avoid breathing in 'bad air'
- not letting unknown people into the village/town
- cleaning up rubbish in the streets
105
what were Nightingales books called and when were they published?
'notes of nursing' published in 1859
| 'notes on hospitals' published in 1863
106
what did Behring do?
in the 20th century he discovered the body manufactures anti toxins that only attack the microbe causing a disease
107
what was the Artisan dwellings act?
in 1875 it meant that the government could get rid of bad housing
108
who discovered chloroform?
James Simpson
109
what does RAMC and FANY stand for?
RAMC-royal army medical corps
| FANY-first aid nursing yeomanry
110
what was used in 1847 to ease pain?
chloroform was very effective and had few side effects. However it was difficult to get the dose right and could kill someone because of the effect on the heart.
111
when did Britain declare war on Germany?
on august 4th 1914
112
how did barber-surgeons treat the sick?
they pulled teeth, lanced boils and carried out bloodletting
| -also did basic surgery such as amputating limps (very low success rates)
113
what did James Watson and Francis Crick do?
analyzed x-ray crystallography and eventually discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953
114
what was used in 1844 to help ease pain?
laughing gas but did not ease all pain and patients remained conscious
115
what happened in the 20th century that led to major changes?
new technology let scientists see cells in greater detail, they concluded that every cell in the body contains DNA
116
what is a 'magic bullet'?
a chemical compound that would attack the specific microbe causing a disease
117
what did Snow do to prove his theory?
- He recorded all of the deaths and realises that all of the people who had cholera all used the same water pump
- he removed the handle from the water pump and saw a huge fall in deaths
- later it was found that a cesspit near by was leaking waste into the well
118
what were the 7 most common risks of death during the war on the western front?
- head injuries
- shell shock
- trench foot
- trench fever
- bullets
- exploding shells and shrapnel
- gas attacks
119
when did the black death reach Britain?
1348
120
what was the 'spontaneous generation'?
some scientists thought that germs were produced by decaying matter
121
when was jenner born?
1749
122
when and who was the printing press invented by?
Gutenberg in 1440
123
what did Marie Curie do?
continued research of x-rays and discovered radium which would later be used for radiotherapy
124
what measures were taken to prevent disease on the western front?
-soldiers were given brodie helmets in 1915
-given whale oil and spare socks and pumps were used to drain trenches
-soldiers were given gas masks in 1915
-in 1918 troops were deloused
-
125
what did Richard Lewisohn do?
in 1915 he added sodium citrate to blood which meant it could be stored for a short time
126
what were dugouts?
holes in the side of trenches where soldiers went in times of attack
127
why was the production of penicillin so slow?
it was very expensive and time consuming
128
what did Francis Rous and James turner do?
in 1917 they added glucose citrate to blood which meant that it could be stored even longer
129
what was the river pollution act?
in 1876 it made it illegal to dump waste/rubbish in the thames
130
what did Karl Landsteiner do?
in 1901 he discovered blood groups which made blood transfusions possible
131
what did Hippocrates do?
- his method of clinical observation is still used today
- he wrote the hippocratic oath where doctors swore not protect life and prevent harm
- he wrote books that influenced people in the middle ages and beyond
- he didnt believe that god caused disease-he thought that their was a physical cause
- he based treatments on exercise, diet and lifestyle but also used bleeding and purging
132
what training did barber surgeons have?
no training
133
what did lister do?
- he discovered that carboilic acid killed parasites in sewage
- he soaked bandages in carbolic acid which prevented wounds getting infected
- he established aseptic surgery
134
what were the treatments of the black death?
- living a Christian life e.g. praying
- holding lucky charms and amulets
- self punishment such as being a flagellant
- eating cold things and taking cool baths
135
what was bloodletting?
when a barber surgeon or non-medical persons cut into a vein, used leeches or cupped to draw blood and try to balance the humors
136
what are some rational methods to prevent illness in the middle ages?
- taking baths
- keeping streets clean
- doing exercise
- bleeding and purging
- not overeating
- purifying the air
137
what did city authorities have to provide due to the heath act of 1875?
- clean water
- street lighting
- public toilets
- public parks
- sewers
138
what did the city authorities have to check due to the heath act of 1875?
- inspect lodgings for cleanliness
- monitor the building of new houses to prevent damp and overcrowding
- check the quality of food sold in shops
- employ a public officer of heath to monitor disease
139
how did physicians treat the sick?
they diagnosed illness, gave treatments or sent patients to the apothecary or barber surgeon
140
what was the continuity in idea about what caused disease in the renaissance?
the theories of miasma and the 4 humors were still believed
141
what did people think cholera was caused by?
miasma and spontaneous generation
142
what was Snows theory about cholera?
that it was transmitted through contaminated water
143
what did alexander Flemings do?
in 1928 he found that penicillium mold provided an excellent antibiotic penicillin
he published his findings but did not think it would work on humans in 1929
144
how did people think the black death was caused?
- miasma
- the humors
- religion
- volcanoes-poisonous gases from European volcanoes and earthquakes spread in the air
- -strangers or witches had caused the disease
- astrology-the position of Saturn, mars and Jupiter was unusual at the time
145
who was Galen?
an ancient Greek doctor (worked in ancient Rome)
146
what did Robert Koch prove?
he proved that Pasteurs theory was correct, that germs did cause disease and decayed
- he identified the specific microbes that caused TB in 1882 and cholera in 1883
- he developed a new easier to grow bacteria on agar jelly
- -he discovered that chemical dyes can be used to stain bacteria which made them easier to see under the microscope
147
give three improvements to hospital care in the 18th and 19th century
- hospital cleanliness and organization improved and nurses were better trained
- specialist hospitals were developed
- public pressure led to infirmaries were being set up for the poorest in society
148
what were the changes in ideas about what caused disease in the renaissance?
- fewer people believed in supernatural or religious causes of disease
- new ideas were suggested such as seeds in the air spreading disease
- the reduced influence of the church
- a new scientific approach to diagnosing medicine
149
what was wrong with the germ theory?
it took a while for doctors and surgeons to believe the germ theory and accept new ideas
150
how were social attitudes towards science changing in the 18th and 19th century?
people realized that a better approach and a new realistic approach must be taken
151
what are some examples of new technology in the 20th and 21st century?
- hypodermic needles
- x-rays
- microscopes
- endoscopes
- pacemakers
152
what did Florence Nightingale do?
- she lead a team of nurses at the military hospital in Scutari during the Crimean way (1854-1856)
- she improved hospital cleanliness and organization though this was because she believed miasma caused disease
- she wrote books, notes on nursing and notes on hospitals
