memory Flashcards

Question

MSM research who found out about the capacity of short term memory

Answer 1

duration of STM

Answer 2

Peterson & Peterson (1959) investigated the duration of short-term memory by conducting a laboratory experiment with a sample of 24 psychology students. The students had to recall meaningless three-letter trigrams (for example, THG, XWV) at different intervals (3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds). To prevent rehearsal (practice) the students had to count backwards in threes or fours from a specific number, until they were asked to recall the letters. Peterson & Peterson found that the longer the interval the less accurate the recall. At 3 seconds, around 80% of the trigrams were correctly recalled, whereas at 18 seconds only 10% were correctly recalled. Peterson & Peterson concluded that short-term memory has a limited duration of approximately 18 seconds. Furthermore, the results show that if we are unable to rehearse information, it will not be passed to long-term memory, providing further support for the multi-store model and the idea of discrete components. Peterson and Peterson carried out an experiment to determine the duration of the STM. They used the 24 male and female used psychology students. The researcher presented a 3 constant sequence. Immediately after, a 3 digit number was read out to them. The participants were asked to count backwards from the number as an interference task, to prevent rehearsal of the trigram within the STM. A red light was presented at intervals between 3 and 18 seconds. When the red light went off, they had to recall the trigram. Peterson et al found that at 3 seconds, the average recall was 80%, whereas at 18 seconds, the average recall was 10%. This supports the claim that the STM has limited duration of 18 seconds. The participants were asked to count back from the number, which interfered with the ability to rehearse the trigram. The trigram may have also been displaced from the STM due to the addition of new information. This increases the validity of the findings regarding the duration of STM in the MSM model for memory, making it more credible.

Answer 3

good control - it uses standardised procedures to make sure all participants experienced the same process. This means that the study is scientific because it can be replicated and the reliability of the findings can be checked to make sure they were not a one-off result

Answer 4

In this study participants were asked to recall three letter trigrams, which is unlike anything people would want to memorise in their everyday lives. As a result we are unable to apply these results to everyday examples of memory and are unable to conclude if the duration of short-term memory may be longer for more important information i.e. memorising a phone number.

Answer 5

Peterson and Peterson's

Answer 6

good control - it uses standardised procedures to make sure all participants experienced the same process. This means that the study is scientific because it can be replicated and the reliability of the findings can be checked to make sure they were not a one-off result

Answer 7

low levels of ecological validity - In this study participants were asked to recall three letter trigrams, which is unlike anything people would want to memorise in their everyday lives. As a result we are unable to apply these results to everyday examples of memory and are unable to conclude if the duration of short-term memory may be longer for more important information i.e. memorising a phone number.

Answer 8

the working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1947, replaced the idea of a unitary STM. It suggests a system involving active processing and short-term storage of information.

Answer 9

Baddley and Hitch

Answer 10

central executive phonological loop visuospatial sketchpad episodic buffer

Answer 11

the central executive has a supervisory function. It acts as a filter and a control centre. It decides where the information goes and what information to pay attention to. It can process information in all sensory forms and directs information to the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad and collects responses. It has a limited capacity and deals with only one piece of information at a time. Early in Baddeley's analysis of working memory, he suggested that the central executive system carried out five important executive component to process: 1. capacity to focus attention 2. capacity to divide attention between two concurrent tasks 3. capacity to switch attention from one task to another 4. inhibition is the ability to hold back a predominant, automatic, or previously learned response that may be inappropriate or irrelevant in the present context 5. planning and decision making as it allows us to actively keep track of all of the necessary information

Answer 12

this temporarily retains language based information. it stores a limited number of speech based sounds for a brief period. it holds information in a speech-based form for 1-2 seconds. written words must first be converted in an articulatory code before they can enter the phonological loop the two subcomponents are: an articulatory rehearsal process = (inner voice) allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store the phonological store = (inner voice) allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period

Answer 13

articulatory rehearsal process phonological store

Answer 14

stores visual and spatial information and be thought of as an inner eye. It is responsible for setting and manipulating mental images. It has limited capacity but the limits of the two systems are independent. Visual information refers to what things look like. It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment. For example, being aware of where we are in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are walking around a classroom means that we don’t bump into things. The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term memory. - inner scribe = retains information about movement sequences and is closely linked to the planning and execution of movement - visual cache = holds information about form and colour

Answer 15

inner scribe visual cache

Answer 16

in 2000 Baddeley proposed the additional component. it is responsible for integrating and manipulating material. it has limited capacity and depends heavily on executive processing. it binds information together from different sources into chunks or episodes. it is able to recall material from LTM and integrate it into STM when working memory requires it.

Answer 17

aim: to investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time method: conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions. results: as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning question, but not much longer - only fractions of a second. And, they didn’t make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased. conclusion: the verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span made use of the phonological loop.

Answer 18

Baddley and Hitch

Answer 19

WORKING MEMORY MODEL KF suffered a motorcycle accident and damaged several areas of his brain. After the accident his short-term memory for digits was very poor when they were read aloud to him. However, when he was able to read the digits himself, his recall was much better. This shows that he could not process auditory information but could process visual information. This supports the WMM as it shows that there are separate stores for processing these different types of information. Consequently, Patient KF undermines the Multi-Store Model of Memory suggesting that STM is not unitary component. Therefore, an individua case study can highlight flaws within a theory and significantly undermine other research

Answer 20

WORKING MEMORY MODEL In an attempt to control his seizures, HM underwent brain surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala. As a result of his surgery, HM’s seizures decreased, but he could no longer form new memories or remember the prior 11 years of his life. He lost his ability to form many times of new memories such as new facts or faces, and the surgery also caused retrograde amnesia as he was able to recall childhood events, but lost the ability to recall experiences a few years before his surgery. The strengths of this case study is that it supports the WMM as it supports the idea that STM has a separate store from LTM. It also supports the fact that LTM has an unlimited capacity and the idea to form LTM, they need to come from STM. Furthermore, HM could still learn new skills (store them and retrieve them) meaning that LTM might have 2 stores. This contradicts the MSM; that LTM has only one unit.

Answer 21

working memory model

Answer 22

working memory model

Answer 23

AO1: - what the working memory model is - central executive, articulatory phonological loop, visuospatial scratchpad, episodic buffer - key study by Baddley and Hitch AO3: - strength - KF case study, reliable - weakness - too simplistic, low ecological validity

Answer 24

long term memory is the final stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by Atkinson-Shiffrin, providing the lasting retention of information and skills

Answer 25

episodic memory, semantic memory, procedural memory

Answer 26

part of the explicit long-term memory and is responsible for storing information about events that we have experienced in our lives. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. An example would be a memory of out 1st day at school. It is associated with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The strength of the episodic memory is that it is determined by the strength of the emotions experienced when they are coded.

Answer 27

part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about the world. This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge. For example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. It is also the memory of relationships and how things fit together. It includes the memory that you have a brother or sister, as well as where things are located and what they do. It is associated with the temporal lobe. The strength of the semantic memory is that it depends on the emotion experienced when the memory is coded. Can be expressed verbally

Answer 28

part of the implicit long-term memory and is responsible for how to do things such as tying shoelaces. It does not include conscious thought and is not declarative. It is acquired through repetition and practice. It is associated with cerebellum and motor cortex. Difficult to express in words.

Answer 29

support from case studies - Examples include the case studies of HM and Clive Wearing; they showed difficulty recalling events that had happened in their past (episodic memories) but their sematic memories were unaffected. HM couldn’t recall stroking a dog but understood the meaning of ‘dog’. Their procedural memories were also intact which supports the view that they are different types of LTM AS one can be damaged and the other can be intact. brain scans show that there are different types of LTM stores -Tulving et al. asked participants to perform a memory task whilst their brains were being scanned with a PET scan. It was found that episodic memories were located in the right prefrontal cortex and semantic memories in the left. This conveys the physical reality of the separate stores in the brain and other research has confirmed this, increasing its validity. real life application - Belleville et al. found that episodic memories can be improved in older people with cognitive impairments. Psychologist scan target certain kinds of memories in order to improve people’s lives. This highlights a benefit in distinguishing between types of LTM as it can lead to the development of outstanding treatments. A limitation is there may only be two types of LTM. Cohen and Squire argued that semantic and episodic memories are stored in one LTM store called declarative memory (that can be consciously recalled). Like Tulving, they still agreed that procedural memory was distinct and called it non-declarative memory. It is important to get the distinctions between these memories right as it influences memory studies and has a knock on effect on how we use it.

Answer 30

the interference theory believes that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another. In 1999, Baddeley stated that forgetting occurs because of interference with other memories.

Answer 31

proactive interference (pro forward) retroactive interference (retro backward)

Answer 32

proactive interference occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already knows interferes with what we are currently learning where old memories disrupt new memories. Keppel and underwood (1962) demonstrated proactive interference. Participants were tasked with recalling constant trigrams after varying intervals when they were tasked with counting backwards in threes. Forgetting increased after each interval however little forgetting occurred at the start. Proactive interference can explain this as earlier consonants entered the long term memory and thus interfered with the formation of new memories retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories Muller (1900) identified retroactive interference through a study where participants tasked with learning a list of syllables are given an intervening task between exposure to the syllables and recall. The intervening task (describing paintings) produced retroactive interference with participants struggling to recall the lists

Answer 33

pro forward

Answer 34

retro backward

Answer 35

Keppel and underwood

Answer 36

proactive interference occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning - where old memories disrupt new memories Keppel and underwood (1962) demonstrated proactive interference. Participants were tasked with recalling constant trigrams after varying intervals when they were tasked with counting backwards in threes. Forgetting increased after each interval however little forgetting occurred at the start. Proactive interference can explain this as earlier consonants entered the long term memory and thus interfered with the formation of new memories

Answer 37

retroactive interference occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories Muller (1900) identified retroactive interference through a study where participants tasked with learning a list of syllables are given an intervening task between exposure to the syllables and recall. The intervening task (describing paintings) produced retroactive interference with participants struggling to recall the lists

Answer 38

AO1: interference theory experiment aim: to investigate how retroactive interference affects learning. In other words, to investigate whether information you have recently received interferes with the ability to recall something, you learned earlier method: a lab experiment was used. Participants were split into two groups. Both groups had to remember a list of paired words eg. cat-tree, jelly-moss. The experimental group also had to learn another list of words where the second paired word is different eg. cat-grass, jelly-time. The control group were not given the second list. All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list. results: the recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group. conclusion: this suggests that learning items in the second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list. This is an example of retroactive interference

Answer 39

lack ecological validity and mundane realism - one major weakness with interference theory is the interference effects are more evident in laboratory-based settings using various memory-based tasks. These setups lack ecological validity and also mundane realism as these tasks are rarely indicative of what people would experience in real-life situations. Therefore it makes it difficult to generalise the findings externally beyond the laboratory settings or understand how much day-to-day forgetting can be credited to interference or even forgetting in general. interference isn’t the only explanation for forgetting - another explanation for forgetting is retrieval failure. This is where information is available, but we are unable to access it. This happens when you have insufficient cues. A study by Godden and Baddeley investigated the effects of contextual cues on recall. Some participants had to learn lists of words on land and recall on land. They found that the higher recalls were in the place that the words were learnt and recall in the same environment. This shows that cues present in the environment where information was learnt, need to be present when you recall the information. Therefore, this suggests that there may be several explanations for forgetting in LTM.

Answer 40

Baddeley and Hitch - However, Baddeley and Hitch carried out a field experiment to test retroactive interference. They asked rugby union players who had played every match in the season and players who had missed some gams due to injury. The length of the time from the beginning of the season to the end of the season was the same for all players, and players were asked to recall the names of the teams they had played against earlier in the season. They found that the players who had played the most games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played fewer games due to injury.

Answer 41

retrieval failure = where the information is in long term memory, but cannot be accessed. Such information is said to be available but not accessible. It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present. Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP). This principle states the memory is most effective when information that was present at the time of coding is also present at the time of retrieval. Contextual cues: They refer to elements in the environment that act as cues when we are learning. For example, the room where you are learning information. State cues: They refer to psychological or mental elements that act as cues when we are learning. For example, your mood at the moment you are learning. There are two types of retrieval failure due to the absence of cues: 1. context dependent failure 2. state dependent failure

Answer 42

they refer to elements in the environment that act as cues when we are learning. for example, the room where you are learning information

Answer 43

they refer to psychological or mental elements that act as cues when we are learning. For example, your mood at the moment when you are learning

Answer 44

context dependent failure state dependent failure

Answer 45

context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval. Godden and Baddeley (1975) An experiment conducted by Godden and Baddeley indicates the importance of setting for retrieval. Baddeley asked 18 deep-sea divers to memorize a list of 36 unrelated words of two or three syllables. There were 4 groups in total. Group 1 (experimental group on land) learned the words on land and recalled on land. Group 2 (control group on land ) learned the words on land and recalled underwater. Group 3 (experimental group underwater) learned the words underwater and recalled underwater. Group 4 (control group underwater) learned underwater and recalled on land. They found that those who had recalled in the same environment, recalled 60% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned. Therefore, forgetting is due to lack of contextual cues when we are trying to retrieve information that was learnt in a different environment. This gives credibility to the retrieval failure theory. Therefore, environmental cues improve the recall.

Answer 46

context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval.

Answer 47

context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval. Godden and Baddeley (1975) An experiment conducted by Godden and Baddeley indicates the importance of setting for retrieval. Baddeley asked 18 deep-sea divers to memorize a list of 36 unrelated words of two or three syllables. There were 4 groups in total. Group 1 (experimental group on land) learned the words on land and recalled on land. Group 2 (control group on land ) learned the words on land and recalled underwater. Group 3 (experimental group underwater) learned the words underwater and recalled underwater. Group 4 (control group underwater) learned underwater and recalled on land. They found that those who had recalled in the same environment, recalled 60% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned. Therefore, forgetting is due to lack of contextual cues when we are trying to retrieve information that was learnt in a different environment. This gives credibility to the retrieval failure theory. Therefore, environmental cues improve the recall.

Answer 48

Baddeley did not control many variables - the divers took part in the experiment at different times of the day and at different diving locations. This suggests that each diver would have experienced other contextual cues, which may have affected their memory. Therefore, we are unable to conclude whether the results of Godden and Baddeley’s research are because of the on land/underwater contextual cues, or another contextual cue provided by the different time of day or driving location. This decreases the validity of the claim that learning and retrieval have to be in the same place to reduce forgetting. Baddeley and Godden used a repeated measure design - this means that each diver took part in each condition. It is possible that the divers worked out the aim of the experiment and displayed demand characteristics or order effects as they saw the same words several times over 4 days. By the fourth trial, the participants may have demonstrated practice effects where the recall improved as a result of completing the experiment multiple times, or fatigue effects where their results declined because of boredom. This reduces the validity of the findings regarding contextual cues and how they reduce forgetting.

Answer 49

state dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when cues relating to emotional and physical state are the same during encoding and retrieval.

Answer 50

state dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when cues relating to emotional and physical state are the same during encoding and retrieval. AO1: Goodwin et al. state dependent experiment There is research support for the effect of state-dependent retrieval failure. A study by Goodwin et al. investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent retrieval. They asked male volunteers to remember list of words when they were either drunk or sober. The participants were then asked to recall the words 24 hours later, in either a drunk of sober state. The results showed that the recall was better when they were in the same mental state when they learned the words and when they recalled them. This supports the state-dependent memory theory as the performance was best in the participants who were sober or intoxicated on both days.

Answer 51

there is considerable evidence to support this theory of forgetting from evidence from outside the laboratory. For example, many people say they can’t remember much about their childhood or their school days. But returning to the house in which they spent their childhood or attending a school reunion often provides retrieval cues which trigger a flood of memories. Therefore, state and context dependent cues may be affecting retrieval of real memories after all, increasing the ecological validity of the theory.

Answer 52

EWT is the evidence given in court or a police investigation by someone who has witnessed a crime or accident

Answer 53

misleading information and anxiety

Answer 54

misleading information: incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event. it can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussing between co-witness or other people - leading questions: a question which because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer. for example, “was the knife in his left hand?”. Leads a person to think that’s where the knife was. response bias - does not change your memory. influences the way you answer. substitution - the wording of a leading question changes the participant’s memory. - post-event discussion: occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witness or with other people. This may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event. memory contamination - when witnesses combine their own memories of the incident with information from other people. our actual memory of the incident is changed. memory conformity - our actual memory is unchanged. this happens when the witness seeks social approval (NSI) or when they believe the others are right (ISI)

Answer 55

AO1: interference theory - proactive interference, retroactive interference interference theory experiment AO3: evaluation of interference theory experiment AO1: retrieval failure - context dependent memory, state dependent memory Godden and Baddeley experiment AO3: evaluation of Godden and Baddeley

Answer 56

leading question post event discussion

Answer 57

anxiety: has a strong emotional and physical effects. anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse. - weapon focus: an eyewitness’s concentration on a weapon to the exclusion of other details of crime.

Answer 58

weapon focus

Answer 59

Loftus and Palmer conducted a classic experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. 45 American students formed an opportunity sample. They were divided into five groups of nine. This was a laboratory experiment with five conditions, only one of which was experienced by each participant. Participants were shown slides of a car accident involving a number of cars and asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. They were then asked specific questions, including questions “About how fast were the cars going when they (hit/ smashed/ collided/ bumped/ contacted) each other”. The findings show that the speed was affected by the verb used in the question. The verb implied information about speed, which systematically affected the participant’s memory of the accident. For example, participants who were given the verb ‘smashed’ reported an average speed of 40.5 mph, where participants who were given the word ‘contacted’ reported an average speed of 31.8 mph, an overall difference of 8.7 mph. The results clearly show that the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgements. The IV was the wording of the question and the DV was the speed reported by the participants. In a second experiment, Loftus and Palmer used a different sample of 150 American students, who were divided into three even groups. All the students watch a one-minute video depicting a car accident and were then given a questionnaire to complete. One group was asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”. Another group was asked “How fast were the cards going when they hit each other?” The final group was not asked about the speed of vehicles. One week later the participants returned and were asked a series of questions about the accident. The critical question was: “Did you see any broken glass?” 32% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb ‘smashed’, reported seeing broken glass; 14% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb ‘hit’, reported seeing broken glass; and 12% of the control group reported seeing broken glass. There was no broken glass in the video clip and the participants who were questioned previously using the verb ‘smashed’ were significantly more likely to report seeing the broken glass, as a result of the earlier leading question. This is the because the verb ‘smashed’ has connotations of faster speed and broken glass and this question led the participants to report seeing something that was not actually present. Their memory for the original event was distorted by the question used on week earlier, demonstrating the power of leading questions.

Answer 60

highly controlled - Loftus and Palmer’s research took place in a laboratory of Washington University and was therefore highly controlled. The high degree of control reduces the chance of extraneous variable, increasing the validity of results. Furthermore, it is easy for psychologists to replicate their research, to see if the same results are achieved with a different population

Answer 61

low ecological validity - Although questioning participants about everyday events like a car crash may appear to be a genuine measure of eyewitness testimony. The participants in the research watched a video of a car crash and witnessed the events unfold from start to finish. In everyday reports of a car accidents, witnesses rarely see the whole event; they are either involved in the event directly, or see a small part of the event happen in their peripheral vision. Therefore, their results do not reflect everyday car accidents. The knowledge that the participants have got from watching the video may have affected how they created memories. lacks population validity - Their two experiments consisted of 45 and 150 Americans. It is reasonable to argue that the students in their experiments were less experienced drivers, who may be less accurate at estimating speeds. Consequently, we are unable to generalise the results to other populations, for example, older and more experienced drivers, may be more accurate in their judgement of speeds and therefore not as susceptible to leading questions.

Answer 62

Loftus and Palmer

Answer 63

Loftus (1979) reported the findings of Johnson and Scott (1976) who conducted an experiment to see if anxiety affects the accuracy of eyewitness testimony and facial recognition. Johnson and Scott invited participants to a laboratory where they were told to wait in the reception area. A receptionist who was seated nearby excused herself to run an errand, leaving the participant alone. The experimenter used an independent groups design, as participants were then exposed to one of two conditions: 1) in the no-weapon condition, participants overhead a conversation in the laboratory about equipment failure. Thereafter an individual (the target) left the laboratory and walked passed the participant holding a pen, with his hands covered in grease 2) in the weapon condition, participants overheard a heated exchange and the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs. This was followed by an individual (the target) running into the reception area, holding a bloodied letter opener. Both groups were then shown 50 photographs and asked to identify the person who had left the laboratory. The participants were informed that the suspect may, or may not be present in the photographs. Those who had witnessed the man holding a pen correctly identified the target 49% of the time, compared to those who had witness the man holding a knife, who correctly identified the target 33% of the time. Loftus claimed that the participants who were exposed to the knife had higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus their attention on the weapon and not the face of the target, a phenomenon known as the weapon focus effect. Therefore, the anxiety associated with seeing a knife reduces the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 64

lacks ecological validity - Although the participants were waiting in the reception area outside the laboratory, they may have anticipate that something was going to happen, which could have affected the accuracy of their judgements. Furthermore, the results from real life case studies refute the findings of Loftus and suggest that her results do not represent real-life cases of extreme anxiety numerous ethical guidelines were broken - the participants were deceived about the nature of the experiment and not protection from harm. Loftus exposed some of the participants to a man holding a bloodied knife, which could have caused extreme feelings of anxiety. This is an issue as these participants may have left the experiment feeling exceptionally stressed and anxious, especially if they, or someone they knew, had been involved in in knife crime

Answer 65

The cognitive interview is a questioning technique used by the police to enhance the retrieval of information about a crime scene from the eyewitness's and victim’s memory. Geiselman et al developed the cognitive interview as an alternative to the standard interview. It takes into account psychological findings about cue-dependent forgetting and has four stages designed to stimulate as many cues as possible in order to maximize different retrieval routes.

Answer 66

stage 1: reinstate the context stage 2: recall events in reverse order stage 3: report everything they can remember stage 4: describe events from someone else's point of view

Answer 67

the interview tries to mentally reinstate the environmental and personal context of the crime for the witness, perhaps by asking them about their general activities and feelings on the day eg. sights, sounds, feelings

Answer 68

encouraging them to report every detail, no matter how small, can increase witness accuracy

Answer 69

when a person considers the event from someone else's point of view. For example, they might consider what the offender saw. This also lessens the influence of schema

Answer 70

when a person recalls the events in reverse chronological order. this prevents to form schemas

Answer 71

context reinstatement, report everything, change of perspective, recall in reverse order

Answer 72

The study aimed to test the effectiveness of the cognitive interview technique in the memory recall of eyewitness. The researchers wanted to compare the efficiency of this technique to the standard interview and the hypnosis interview techniques. Eighty-nine participants were shown a view of a violent crime. Around 48 hours later, a law enforcement professional used one of three different methods to interview the participants. These were: - the cognitive interview technique - the standard interview technique - the hypnosis interview technique the interviewers noted the number of facts recalled accurately, the number of inaccuracies and the number of made up details by the participants. Results showed that there was significantly more accurate memory recall from eyewitnesses with the cognitive interview and hypnosis interview. The standard technique produced the lowest number of accurately recalled facts.

Answer 73

Fisher et al - studied a field experiment to test the effectiveness of the cognitive interview technique. 16 police detectives took part in a study. Detectives were first asked to record some interviews using their standard interview techniques. After, seven police detectives were trained to use cognitive interview technique and nine used the standard police interview technique. The results showed that the detectives who used the cognitive interview technique gained 63% more information than those who did not use the technique. The study showed strong support for using the cognitive interview technique in the practical field. There was also no loss of accuracy of information along with increased information obtained. more structured - the technique is more structured than the standard technique, and it seems appropriate for crime-related interviews to be very thorough in order to gather the detail required for a useful testimony

Answer 74

Koenhnken et al - Koehnken et al found that witnesses recalled more incorrect information when interviewed with the cognitive interview compared to the standard interview technique, perhaps because more detailed recall increases the chances of making mistakes. the interview is far more time consuming than the standard interview

Answer 75

AO1: - what cognitive interview is - stages of cognitive interview - 4 principles of cognitive interview - Giselman et al study AO3: strength - Fisher et al, more structured weakness - Koenhnken et al

Answer 76

in the early 1990s, researchers added to the cognitive interview, creating the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI). The ECI maintains the same principles as the cognitive interview technique; however, the ECI also examines how other social factors affect report accuracy. A study found that witnesses’ attitudes and motivations towards the interview affect the quality of their reporting. This includes how the witness perceives the appropriateness of the interview procedure. It was found that the higher the perception of the interview appropriateness, the more detailed their reports and the better their attitude was towards being interviewed.

memory Flashcards

(104 cards)