memory

Question 1

coding

Answer 1

-baddeley 1966 acoustic and semantic
-acoustically similar words or disimilar
-semantically similar or disimilar words
-immediate recall worse with acoustically similar
-recall after 20 mins worse with semantically similar words
-STM is acoustic
-LTM is semantic

Question 2

capacity- testing digit span

Answer 2

-Jacobs 1887
-4 digits read, increase until they cannot recall order
-final number= digit span
-avg 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters in correct order immediately

Question 3

capacity- magic number

Answer 3

-Miller 1956
-noted that things in everyday come in 7s, days of week, deadly sins etc
-span of STM about 7 items plus or minus 2, but is increased by chunking

Question 4

duration- STM

Answer 4

-Peterson and Peterson 1959 consonant syllables
-24 students given consonant syllable to recall and a 3 digit number to count backwards from
retention intervals; 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 secs
-after 3 secs avg recall about 80%, after 18 secs 3%
-STM duration without rehearsal is about 18 secs

Question 5

duration-LTM

Answer 5

-Bahrick et al 1975 yearbook photos
-pps were 392 americans age 17-74
1.recognition test (50 photos from high school yearbook)
2.free recall test (pps listed names of their graduating class)
-recognition test= 90% after 15years, 70% after 48years
free recall= 60% after 15 years, 30% after 48years

Question 6

MSMM- what is it?

Answer 6

-Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
-describes how info flows through the memory system
-memory made of 3 stores linked by processing

Question 7

MSMM- sensory register

Answer 7

-all stimuli from environment pass to SR, this is made up of 5 stores for each sense
-coding-specific, depends on sense (visual in iconic, acoustic in echoic)
-duration- very brief, less than half a second

Question 8

transfer from SR to STM

Answer 8

info passes further into memory only if attention is paid to it

Question 9

MSMM- STM

Answer 9

-limited capacity store of temporary duration
-coding-acoustic (based on sound)
-duration- about 18 secs unless rehearsed
-capacity- between 5 and 9 (7+/-2) items before some forgetting occurs

Question 10

MSMM- transfer from STM to LTM

Answer 10

-maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves.
-we can keep info in STM as long as we rehearse it
-if we rehearse long enough it passes to LTM (prolonged rehearsal)

Question 11

MSMM-LTM

Answer 11

-permanent memory store
-coding- mostly semantic
-duration-potentially a lifetime
-capacity-potentially unlimited

Question 12

MSMM- retrieval from LTM

Answer 12

-when we want to recall info from LTM it has to be transferred back to STM by retrieval

Question 13

types of LTM- episodic

Answer 13

-stores events from our life
-like a diary of personal experiences
-complex
-they are time stamped- you remember when they happened and how they relate in time
-involve several elements
-have to make conscious effort to recall

Question 14

types of LTM-semantic

Answer 14

-stores our knowledge of the world
-e.g. taste of an orange, meaning of a word
-not time stamped, we do not remember when we first heard about them
-less personal and more facts that we all share

Question 15

types of LTM- procedural

Answer 15

-stores memory for action and skills
-e.g. driving a car
-recall without awareness or effort
-become automatic with practice
-explaining step by step is difficult because you do it without conscious awareness

Question 16

WMM- what is it?

Answer 16

-a model of STM
-concerned with mental space that is active e.g. when doing maths or comprehending language

Question 17

WMM- central executive

Answer 17

-allocates subsystems
-supervisory role- monitors incoming data and allocates subsystems to tasks
-very limited storage capacity

Question 18

WMM- phonological loop

Answer 18

-deals with auditory info and preserves the order in which info arrives, subdivided into;
-phonological store= stores words you hear
-articulatory process=allows maintenance rehearsal

Question 19

WMM- visuo spatial sketchpad

Answer 19

-stores visual and spatial info when required
-Logie 1995 subdivided it into;
-visual cache=stores visual data
-inner scribe=records arrangement of objects in visual field

Question 20

WMM- episodic buffer

Answer 20

-added in 2000
-temporary info store
-integrates visual, spatial and verbal info from other stores
-maintains sense of time sequencing- recording events that are happening
-links to LTM

Question 21

if LTM can be unlimited, why do we forget?

Answer 21

possible info was never stored or the actual memory trace has disappeared
-or it is there but not accessible due to lack of cues

Question 22

what are cues

Answer 22

-things that serve as a reminder
-may be environmental cues or mental state

Question 23

what is retrieval failure?

Answer 23

-occurs due to absence of cues
-explanation for forgetting based on idea that the memory is there but not acsessible

Question 24

retrieval failure- encoding specificity principle

Answer 24

-Tulving and thompson
-memory most effective if info present at encoding also present as retrieval
-ESprinciple states the cue doesn’t have to be exactly right but close the cue is to original item, the better

Question 25

retrieval failure-context dependent forgetting

Answer 25

-most likely to forget in different context -therefore a cue would be to go back to the place or visualise it -

Question 26

context dependent forgetting study- retrieval failure

Answer 26

-Godden and Baddeley -scuber divers learn words under water or on ground -tested on land or under water, 4 conditions -highest recall occured when context of learning same as retrieval

Question 27

retrieval failure- state dependent forgetting

Answer 27

-likely to forget if not in same physical, physiological or mental state in which memory took place -cue is to recreate the state

Question 28

state dependent forgetting study- retrieval failure

Answer 28

-Goodwin et al -male volunteers remember list of words drunk or sober -asked to recall after 24 hours when sober or drunk- 4 conditions -more recalled in same state

Question 29

what is interference

Answer 29

-explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory disrupting ability to recall another -most likely when memories are similar -

Question 30

proactive interference

Answer 30

-past learning interferes with current attempts to learn

Question 31

retroactive interference

Answer 31

-current learning interferes with past learning

Question 32

proactive interference- study

Answer 32

-benton underwood -analysed findings from many studies when pps have to learn a series of word lists they do not leearn words encountered later as well as the ones earlier in the list -if pps memorised 10 or more lists, remembered 20% after 24hours -if only learned one list, recall was over 70%

Question 33

retroactive interference- study

Answer 33

-george muller -list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6mins -after retention interval, asked to recall -performance worse if pps been given interview task in between learning and recall -interviewing task produced RI

Question 34

ewt- misleading info- loftus+palmer leading questions- procedure

Answer 34

1974 -45 students watch clips of car accidents, answer critical questions about speed 'about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?' -given a different verb, 'contacted' 'smashed' 'bumped'

Question 35

ewt- misleading info- loftus+palmer leading questions- findings

Answer 35

-verb 'contacted' produced mean estimate 31.8, smashed was 40.5 -leading question biased eyewitness recall of an event -smashed suggests faster speed

Question 36

why do leading questions affect EWT?

Answer 36

1.response bias explanantion- wording doesnt effect memory, only answer 2.substitution explanation- wording effects memory, interfering with original memory

Question 37

ewt- misleading info-gabbert et al- post event discussion- procedure

Answer 37

-paired pps watch vid of same crime, filmed so they seen different aspects -they then discussed the vid before a test of their recall

Question 38

ewt- misleading info- gabbert et al- post event discussion- findings

Answer 38

-71% wrongly recalled aspects they did not see but heard in the discussion -control group (no discussion and no errors) -evidence of memory conformity

Question 39

why does post event info affect EWT

Answer 39

1.mem contamination- after discussion they mix info with own mems 2.mem conformity- witnesses go along with each other for social approval or because they believe other person is right

Question 40

ewt- anxiety- johnson and scott - anxiety has a negative effect- procedure

Answer 40

-pps in waiting room before what they believe to be lab study -low a condition=heard casual convo and saw man walk through pen w grease lhigh a condition=heated argument, breaking glass, knife in blood creates weapon focus -asked to pick man out of 50 photos

Question 41

ewt-anxiety-johnson and scott- anxiety has neg effect- findings

Answer 41

-49% of pps in low a condition, 33% in high a pps able to identify man -tunnel theory of mem argues people have enhanced mem of central events -weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect

Question 42

ewt-anxiety-yuille and cutshall- anxiety has pos effect- procedure

Answer 42

-actual crime gun shop owner shot thief dead -13/21 witness agreed to take part -interviewed 4/5 month after -info recalled compared to police interviews at the time -witnesses rate how stressed they felt at time of incident

Question 43

ewt- anxiety- yuille and cutshall- anxiety has pos effect- findings

Answer 43

-witnesses very accurate, little change after 5 month -some details such as age height less accurate -pps who reported higher stress were more accurate 88% compared to 75% -anxiety may enhance ewt in real world events

Question 44

ewt- anxiety- explaining contradictory findings

Answer 44

-inverted U theory= Yerkes and Dobson 1908-relationship between mem and stress is an inverted U -affects memory= Deffenbacher 1983- reviewed 21 studies of ewt with opposite findings- he suggestes u curve effect could explain this

Question 45

cognitive interview- introduction

Answer 45

-Fisher and Geiselman 1992- said ewt could be improved by using techniques to improve how memory works -foundation in cog psychology -understanding established in the interview

Question 46

cognitive interview- technique 1- report everything

Answer 46

-every detail -even if small or not confident -trivial details may trigger other memories

Question 47

cognitive interview- technique 2- reinstate the context

Answer 47

-return to original crime scene in mind -imagine environment and emotions -based on context dependent forgetting -cues may trigger recall

Question 48

cognitive interview- technique 3- reverse the order

Answer 48

-events recalled in diff order -prevents people basing on expectations -also prevents dishonesty as harder to lie

Question 49

cognitive interview- technique 4- change perspective

Answer 49

-recall from another persons perspective -prevents influence of expectations or schema (packages of info developed through experience)

Question 50

enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 50

-Fisher et al 1987 -added more elements -focus on social dynamics of interaction (knowing when to relinquish eye contact) -also reduce eyewitness anxiety and minimising distractions asking open ended questions and getting them to speak slowly