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Psychology P1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline baddeley’s research into coding

A

1966
Gave participants 1 of 4 word lists
1. Acoustically similar
2. Acoustically dissimilar
3. Semantically similar
4. Semantically dissimilar
Asked to recall these lists either soon after (STM) or after a period of time (LTM)

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2
Q

Outline the findings of Baddeley’s research into coding

A

STM - worse recall with acoustically similar words
LTM - worse recall with semantically similar words

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3
Q

2 evaluation points for research on coding

A

Evidence for separate memory stores
Artificial stimuli

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4
Q

How does Baddeleys research show there is two separate memory stores?

A

Research identified clear differences between LTM and STM .
Some research shows exceptions.
But main idea is that LTM = semantic
STM = acoustic
Important step in understanding memory

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5
Q

Why is the use of artificial stimuli in Baddeleys research on coding a weakness?

A

Doesn’t use meaningful material
Lists had no personal meaning to participants
May not tell us about coding in real life
So application is limited

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6
Q

Outline the procedure and findings of the digit span test

A

Jacobs (1887)
Gave ppt 4 digit number , added a number after each recall until they failed.
Mean for digits = 9.3
Mean for letters = 7.3

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7
Q

Outline what Miller said about capacity of memory?

A

Noted things come in 7s (eg days of the week)
Capacity for STM is 7+-2
Chunking occurs - 5 words is as easy as 5 letters

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8
Q

2 evaluation points for research on capacity

A

Valid study - replicable
Not so many chunks as suggested

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9
Q

Why is Jacob’s study being replicated a strength?

A

Old studies (1887) often lack control of variables so confounding variables may affect the results .
But replicated with same results in 2005 by Bopp and Verhaeghen
Shows it is a valid test

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10
Q

What did Cowan say about Millers theory of chunking ?

A

Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM
Cowan reviewed memory research and concluded STM capacity may be more like 4+-1 chunks
Lower end of his proposal correct

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11
Q

Outline STM research on duration

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)- 24 students 8 trials
Given trigrams and 3 digit number
Had to count down from this number until told to stop and recall
To stop maintenance rehearsal)
Told to stop after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds

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12
Q

Findings of research into the duration of STM

A

Accuracy only 3% after 18 seconds
Therefore LTM duration is 18 seconds

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13
Q

Outline research into the duration of LTM

A

Bahrick (1975)
392 Americans ( ages 17-77)
Looked at high school year books
Tested recall and recognition

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14
Q

Outline findings of research into duration of LTM

A

Some participants still remembered class mates 48 years later. Shows LTM is potentially life long.

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15
Q

2 evaluation points for research on duration

A

Meaningless stimuli
High external validity

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16
Q

What is a weakness of Peterson and Peterson research ?

A

Meaningless stimuli
Stimulus (trigrams) artificial
Not meaningful
Doesn’t reflect everyday life
Lacks external validity

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17
Q

What is a strength of Bahrick’s research ?

A

High external validity
Investigated meaningful memories
Shepard (1967) found with meaningless stimuli LTM duration lower
Bahrick findings reflect real estimate of duration of LTM

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18
Q

Multi store model of memory

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968,1971)
Stimulus => sensory register => attention=>STM=>LTM

retrieved from STM by response
Prolonged rehearsal transfers info into LTM
LTM to LTM via retrieval
Maintenance rehearsal = saying word over and over

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19
Q

Outline the sensory register

A

Modality specific (e.g iconic- visual)
Sperling (1960) found SR duration very short (1/2 second)
Very large capacity
Transferred to LTM via attention

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20
Q

4 evaluation points for multi store model of memory

A

Research support
Artificial stimuli
More than 1 STM
Elaborative rehearsal

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21
Q

How does Baddeleys research support MSMM?

A

Shows two separate stores as they are coded differently
Shows independent stores

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22
Q

How does research into memory often lack external validity and why is this a bad thing ?

A

Uses artificial stimuli
Eg P + P trigrams , Jacobs - letters / numbers , Baddeley - random words
Doesn’t reflect how memory works in every day life.

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23
Q

What is the clinical evidence that shows more than 1 STM store?

A

Shallice and Warrington (1970) studied KF ( patient with amnesia)
When words read aloud to him = bad recall
When he reads words = better recall
Shows MSMM is wrong in claiming that there is only one STM store

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24
Q

What is meant by elaborative rehearsal ?

A

Craik and Watkins suggested that the amount of rehearsal isn’t the only way of transferring information from STM to LTM .
Rehearsal focusing on meaning and linking back is more effective
Shows MSMM doesn’t show all the ways LTM storage can be achieved

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25
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Episodic Semantic Episodic
26
Who proposed the types of LTM and when?
Tulving (1985)
27
Outline episodic LTM
Episodes from our lives (eg graduation) Time stamped Combination of elements ( senses ) Conscious effort to recall
28
Outline semantic LTM
Shared knowledge of world and knowledge of concepts Not time stamped Less vulnerable to distortion
29
Outline procedural LTM
Memory for actions or skills ( driving ) Hard to explain without task being more difficult
30
4 evaluation points for types of LTM
Clinical evidence Lack of control over variables Real world application Conflicting neuroimaging evidence
31
What is the clinical evidence for types of LTM ?
Case studies like HM and Clive Wearing ( brain damage / infections ) Semantic memories relatively unaffected . Procedural still intact ( eg walking and talking ) Episodic severely damaged. Shows one store can be damaged and others functioning
32
What is bad about using HM and Clive wearing as evidence for the types of LTM ?
Lack of control Difficulting isolating variables and damage No knowledge of them before Limits how far we can apply the findings to LTM
33
How can the types of LTM be applied to real world ?
Allows psychologists to help people with memory issues As people age they struggle with episodic memory Belleville targeted episodic memory via intervention to present memory loss Useful in developing treatments
34
How does neuroimaging evidence about types of LTM conflict eachother ?
1 - semantic left prefrontal - episodic right prefrontal 2 - left prefrontal to episodic encoding - Right prefrontal to episodic retrieval Challenges neurophysiological evidence as poor agreement on location of memory
35
What are the parts of the working memory model ?
Central executive Visuo spatial sketch pad Phonological loop Episodic buffer
36
Outline role of central executive
Supervisory Allocates subsystems Very limited capacity
37
Outline the visuo spatial sketch pad
Capacity 3-4 objects , codes visually Stores visual and spatial info Visual cache- store Inner scribe- spatial arrangement
38
Outline episodic buffer
Added in 2000 Integrates data from subsystems and records order Storage component of CE Flexible coding
39
Outline phonological loop
Auditory info that is acoustically coded Phonological store - words you hear ( 2 seconds of spoken words ) Articulatory process- allows maintenance rehearsal by repeating words in loop
40
4 evaluation points of working memory model
Clinical evidence Other factors? Dual task performance Lack of clarity over nature of CE
41
How does KF provide support for WWM?
Clinical evidence Poor STM for auditory info Intact STM for visual info Phonological loop damaged , visuospatial Sketchpad intact Shows separate acoustic and visual stores
42
What is bad about using clinical evidence for support for working memory model ?
Other factors could affect it Trauma from motorbike accident may have affected cognitive performance quite apart from brain injury Unclear if there was any other cognitive impairments Challenges evidence from clinical studies
43
How does Dual task Performance support the working memory model ?
Baddeley 1975 Visual + verbal task at same time. Performance similar to when they were doing separately When both visual or verbal , performance on both declined Shows separate subsystem that process visual input and verbal processing
44
Why is there lack of clarity over role of central executive and why is this bad?
Baddeley said most it was important but least understood part of WMM. More clarity then attention May have its own sub component CE unsatisfactory part of WMM and challenged overall integrity
45
What is retrieval failure ?
When we don’t have necessary cues. Memory is available just not accessible .
46
What is encoding specificity principle ?
Tulving reviewed retrieval failure research , found pattern. Cues most affective when present at coding and retrieval Can be meaningful eg mnemonic techniques or meaningless state
47
Outline the procedure of research on context dependent cues ?
Godden and Baddeley (1975) deep sea divers Learn words in 4 conditions , learn on land , recall in sea ETC
48
What are the findings of research in context dependent cues?
When conditions match better recall . 40% lower when unmatched
49
Outline research into state dependent cues
Carter and Cassidy (1998) Antihistime with mildly sedative effect 4 conditions like Baddeley
50
Outline the findings of research into state dependent cues?
Recall significantly worse when unmatched
51
4 evaluation points for retrieval failure
Research support Context has to be very efficient Real world application Recall vs recognition
52
What is the research support for retrieval failure ?
Impressive range that suggest retrieval failure occurs in the absence of cues Eysenck and Keane suggest it is main reason for LTM forgetting Shows it occurs IRL and in highly controlled lab conditions
53
What did Baddeley suggest about context cues and retrieval failure ?
That context cues aren’t very strong in real life as contexts have to be very diffferent eg on land and in water
54
How can retrieval failure be applied to real life situations?
Even though they can be weak, they can be useful to be mindful of as they can aid recall
55
What were the findings of when recognition was tested instead of recall in the context cue research?
Context effects depend substantially on what type of memory being tested Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated experiments with a recognition test No context dependent effect when recognition tested so limited explanation for forgetting
56
What is interference?
When new or old information effects new or old information from being recalled
57
What are the types of interference ?
Proactive Retroactive
58
What is retroactive interference ?
When new memories disrupt the recall of old memories
59
What is proactive interference ?
When old memories disrupt the formation of new memories
60
How does similarity affect interference ?
The more similarity there is between old new material , the more interference occurs
61
Outline McGeoch and McDonald’s research into interference ?
Learn one list then learn 1 of 6 lists 1.synonyms 2.antonyms 3.unrelated words 4.consonant syllables 5. Digit 6. No list (control )
62
Outline McGeoch and McDonald’s findings for their research into interference
When lists were most similar, recall was the worst
63
Explain the effect of similarity on interference
Proactive interference- previous list makes new similar info harder to remember Retroactive interference- new info overwrites similar memories
64
4 evaluation points for interference
Real world interference Conditions are rare Interference and cues Support from drug studies
65
How has interference been shown to occur in real life ?
Baddeley and Hitch (1977) Asked Rugby players to recall team names across season All had same interval ( one season ) But number of intervening games changed (injury) Most games = most interference Real world = > external validity
66
What is the counterpoint for research that shows real life interference?
That in every day life these conditions are rare Unlike lab studies which have high control of manipulating variables Similarity in real life is unusual So better explained by retrieval failure
67
How is interference affected by cues?
Tulving and Psotka (1971) Given words in categories - recall 70% and worse with additional lists added Cued recall tested with category names - recall rose back to 70% This shows interference has a temporary affect and this wasn’t predicted by the original theory
68
How do drug studies provide support for interference?
Coenen and Van Luijtelaar Gave participants words to recall either 1) taking diazepam before/during learning 2) taking diazepam after learning When list learned before taking drug , better recall as drug prevents new info from being remember so no retroactive interference = retrograde facilitation
69
Who proposed the cognitive interview and what did they suggest?
Fisher and Geiselman (1992) Suggested EWT should be improved via psychological insights into memory
70
What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview ?
Report everything Reinstate context Reverse order Change perspective
71
Describe the report everything stage of CI
report even seemingly unimportant details Could be important Or trigger memories
72
Describe the reinstate context stage of CI
Picture crime scene in mind Imagine environment ( weather or feelings) This is to avoid context dependent forgetting
73
Describe the reverse order stage of CI
Recall from end and work backwards Disrupts expectations and schemas Harder to lie
74
Describe the change perspective stage of CI
Put your self in shoes of some one else present Disrupts schema so less expectation
75
What is the enhanced CI?
Fisher et al. (1987) added elements to CI which focused on social dynamics such as eye contact, tone and types of questions asked.
76
What is the support for the effectiveness of the CI ?
Köknken et al. 1999 Meta analysis of 55 studies comparing CI and enhanced CI with standard police interviews. Average 41% increase in accurate info Only 4 studies showed no difference Shows CI is effective in helping witnesses remember
77
What is a weakness of the research support for the effectiveness of CI?
Köknken also found an increase inaccurate information Especially in the enhanced CI CI sacrificed the quality of EWT in favour of quantity Treat evidence with caution
78
What elements of CI which are more useful ?
Milne and Bull 2002 Report everything and reinstate context create better recall then the other stages Casts doubt on overall credibility of CI
79
How is CI time consuming?
Police officers are reluctant to use CI as takes more time and specialist training Time to establish rapport Not enough resources So not realistic to implement
80
What is the research that suggests anxiety has a negative effect on recall?
Focus on weapon leads us to pay less attention to other events Johnson and Scott 1976
81
Outline the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s research into anxiety and EWT
Participants thought they were in lab study Low anxiety condition: heard men talking and then man walked past with pen and greasy hands High anxiety condition : heard heated argument and sound of breaking glass then man walked past with bloody knife
82
Outline the findings of Johnson and Scott’s research into anxiety and EWT
Low anxiety condition - 49% picked correct man out from 50 High anxiety condition - 33% picked correct man out from 50 because of tunnel theory
83
What is the research that suggests anxiety has a positive effect on EWT?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
84
Outline the procedure of Yuille and Cutshals research into anxiety ?
Study of an actual shooting in Vancouver where wonder shot thief dead 21 witnesses 13 in study Interviewed 4-5 months after and this was compared to original police interview Reported stress levels and emotional problems since the shooting
85
What are the findings of Yuille and Cutshal research ?
All accounts were very accurate Those who reported the most stress had most accurate recall Less stressed participants = 75% More stressed participants = 88%
86
What explains the contradiction between the research that suggests anxiety has both positive and negative effects?
Yerkes Dodson inverted U Low stress = bad performance Medium stress = good performance High stress = bad performance
87
What research supports the Yerkes Dodson Law ?
Deffenbacher 1983 -> reviewed 21 studies EWT and found contradictory findings that support the Yerkes Dodson law .
88
4 evaluation points for factors affecting EWT - anxiety
Unusualness not anxiety Support for negative effects Support for positive affects Lack of control
89
Why can the affect of anxiety be argued to be actually the affect of unusualness?
Focus on weapon may be due to surprise not fear Pickel (1998) - showed participant video in hand salon wit scissors , hand gun , chicken , wallet Scissors= high anxiety , low unusualness Chicken= low anxiety, high unusualness Recall of details from video with chicken significantly worse So Nothing to do with anxiety
90
What is the research support for the negative affects of anxiety on EWT?
Valentine and mesout London dungeon Used objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants to high and low anxiety groups Low anxiety = good recall High anxiety = poor recall Anxiety clearly affected participants ability to recall details about the actor
91
What is the research that supports anxiety has positive affects on EWT?
Christianson and hübinette Interview 58 witnesses to actual bank robbery in Sweden Staff ( assumed to be involved directly ) consider to have most anxiety compared to witnesses 75% accurate across all involved Most anxiety (direct victims) more accurate
92
What is a weakness of the research that suggests anxiety has positive affects on EWT? (Christianson and hübinette)
The participants were interviewed several months after the event Psychologists had no control over post event discussion or other factors Negative affects of anxiety overwhelmed by over factors Lack of control over extraneous variables invalidates support
93
What is a misleading question?
Questions that lead you into saying a particular answer
94
Outline the procedure of research into leading questions
Loftus and Palmer (1974) 45 students watch film of car accidents then completed questionnaire Critical question = how fast were the cars going when they Verb = hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed
95
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmers research ?
Contacted= 31.8mph Smashed= 40.5 mph
96
What are the two explanations for Loftus and palmers findings ?
Response bias Substitution explanation
97
What is response bias in research into leading questions ?
Only simply changing how they answer the question Not memory
98
What is the substitution explanation in research into misleading questions and EWT? What research shows this?
When memory is changed Loftus and Palmer (1974) 2nd experiment Smashed = more likely to report smashed glass later then hit Changed memory of event
99
What is post event discussion?
Discuss memory and experience with others
100
Outline the procedure of research into post event discussion
Gabbert et al (2003)- in pairs participants watched video of the same crime but from a different point of view They discussed and then had a recall test .
101
What are the findings of research into post event discussion?
71% of participants reported aspects they didn’t see ( picked up in discussion) . 0 % in control group .
102
What is memory conformity ?
Responding for social approval
103
What is memory contamination ?
When information from others is mixed into their memories
104
What is the real world application for research into misleading information?
Has practical use in criminal justice Inaccurate EWT has serious consequences Loftus (1975) believe leading questions have big affect so police need to take care in their language Can be used to explain weaknesses of EWT to juries Psychology can improve legal systems
105
How can the practical application of EWT be affected by research issues?
Loftus and Palmers participants watched films in labs Very different to real life Foster et al. Pointed out the lack of consequences May have been two pessimistic about the effects misleading information has on EWT.
106
What is the evidence against the substitution explanation for why leading questions have an affect?
Only accurate for some aspects of memory Sutherland and Hayne showed ppt a video clip and asked misleading questions Recall was still accurate for central but not peripheral details So central aspects are resistant to misleading information
107
What is the evidence against the memory conformity explanation for why post event discussions have an affect?
Skagerberg and Wright 2008 Clip of mugging ( 1 participant saw light brown hair , other saw dark brain hair. Then discussed what they saw. Didn’t report what the other said but instead reported a blend of both ( medium brown) Suggests contamination takes place not conformity
108
4 evaluation points for misleading information
Real world application Affected by research issues Evidence against substitution Evidence challenging memory conformity

Psychology P1 (8 decks)

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