Memory Flashcards

Question

Episodic LTM: is it Implicit/explicit, what type of LTM is it and where in the brain is it located

Answer 1

Explicit Memories/events Temporal area/ hippocampus

Answer 2

explicit - can be explain Info/facts Temporal

Answer 3

implicit cannot explain Actions/muscle memory Motor cortex/cerebellum

Answer 4

Strengths: Real life application: Belleville et al (2006) - demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved in older people with mild cognitive impairment - REAL LIFE APPLICATION . - shows how the Tulvings multiple stores of LTM enables specific treatments to be created. Limitations Case studies: Clive wearing is a case study : ungeneralisable, extraneous variables such as individual differences, different causes, pre-existing problems? Cohen and Squire (1980) Argue against 3 types of LTM. Think there’s only two Declarative memory ( semantic and episodic ) Non declarative memory ( procedural ) relying on case studies: - lacks replicability and reliability Less generalisability Clinical studies lack control of extraneous variables as they are purely observations rather than theoretical or lab studies Is it better to have three types of LTM or two? Better three: brain regions are separate - would allow us to more closely see activity if we can distinct between parts We need to have an accurate conception as to how memory works, pairing two together is unhelpful and un declarative We need to apply accurate knowledge for people who have memory problems aka amnesia - we can therefore develop more localised help/meds From a scientific pov its also better as it best matches the evidence as in the case study it shows they can be separate. Better two: episodic and semantic are similar so why not the same area, also brain can be lateralised not localised.

Answer 5

Cohen and Squire (1980) Argue against 3 types of LTM. Think there’s only two Declarative memory ( semantic and episodic ) Non declarative memory ( procedural ) relying on case studies: - lacks replicability and reliability Less generalisability Clinical studies lack control of extraneous variables as they are purely observations rather than theoretical or lab studies Better three: brain regions are separate - would allow us to more closely see activity if we can distinct between parts We need to have an accurate conception as to how memory works, pairing two together is unhelpful and un declarative We need to apply accurate knowledge for people who have memory problems aka amnesia - we can therefore develop more localised help/meds From a scientific pov its also better as it best matches the evidence as in the case study it shows they can be separate. Better two: episodic and semantic are similar so why not the same area, also brain can be lateralised not localised.

Answer 6

Belleville et al (2006) - demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved in older people with mild cognitive impairment - REAL LIFE APPLICATION . - shows how the Tulvings multiple stores of LTM enables specific treatments to be created.

Answer 7

WMM is a model of how the STM is organised and how it functions focus on the active, temporary storing an manipulating info More complex part of STM from MSM Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Central executive: ttentional process, monitors incoming info Makes decisions and allocates info to slave system Limited storage capacity Eg: 1st slave system: Phonological Loop limited capacity - 2 second capacity Deals with auditory info Baddeley ( who found the coding of the LTM and STM ( semantic and auditory) ) found: Phonological store: ‘inner ear’ stores/codes acoustic information Articulatory process: “inner voice” allows maintenance rehearsal, sub vocal repetition repeating sounds or words in a loop 2nd slave system: Visuo- special sketch pad visual/ special info stored here - inner eye Limited capacity : 3-4 objects visual cache: stores/codes visual data inner scribe - manipulates mental images, and their spacing/arrangement 3rd slave system: episodic bugger baddeley(2000) : added episodic buffer as he realised the model needed a more general store temporary store for info: can be seen as storage for central executive intergration of visual, spatial and verbal maintains a time sequence : records events that are happening limited capacity : 3-4 objects BADDELEY AND HITCH : Dual task performance found there is a separate existence of visio spatial sketch pad and other stores it is more difficult to carry out 2 visual tasks ( eg: driving and going on phone ) it is easier to cary out two different types of tasks, eg: visual and verbal both visual tasks compete for same slave system whereas there isnt competition for verbal+ visual supports idea of separate components of the STM

Answer 8

WMM is a model of how the STM is organised and how it functions focus on the active, temporary storing an manipulating info More complex part of STM from MSM BADDELEY AND HITCH : Dual task performance found there is a separate existence of visio spatial sketch pad and other stores it is more difficult to carry out 2 visual tasks ( eg: driving and going on phone ) it is easier to cary out two different types of tasks, eg: visual and verbal both visual tasks compete for same slave system whereas there isnt competition for verbal+ visual supports idea of separate components of the STM

Answer 9

Central executive: Attentional process, monitors incoming info Makes decisions and allocates info to slave system Limited storage capacity 1st slave system: Phonological Loop limited capacity - 2 second capacity Deals with auditory info Baddeley ( who found the coding of the LTM and STM ( semantic and auditory) ) found: Phonological store: ‘inner ear’ stores/codes acoustic information Articulatory process: “inner voice” allows maintenance rehearsal, sub vocal repetition repeating sounds or words in a loop 2nd slave system: Visuo- special sketch pad visual/ special info stored here - inner eye Limited capacity : 3-4 objects visual cache: stores/codes visual data inner scribe - manipulates mental images, and their spacing/arrangement 3rd slave system: episodic bugger baddeley(2000) : added episodic buffer as he realised the model needed a more general store temporary store for info: can be seen as storage for central executive intergration of visual, spatial and verbal maintains a time sequence : records events that are happening limited capacity : 3-4 objects

Answer 10

1st slave system: Phonological Loop limited capacity - 2 second capacity Deals with auditory info Baddeley ( who found the coding of the LTM and STM ( semantic and auditory) ) found: Phonological store: ‘inner ear’ stores/codes acoustic information Articulatory process: “inner voice” allows maintenance rehearsal, sub vocal repetition repeating sounds or words in a loop 2nd slave system: Visuo- special sketch pad visual/ special info stored here - inner eye Limited capacity : 3-4 objects visual cache: stores/codes visual data inner scribe - manipulates mental images, and their spacing/arrangement 3rd slave system: episodic bugger baddeley(2000) : added episodic buffer as he realised the model needed a more general store temporary store for info: can be seen as storage for central executive intergration of visual, spatial and verbal maintains a time sequence : records events that are happening limited capacity : 3-4 objects

Answer 11

Pros ( WMM ) : clearer than MSM WMM: more efficient and applicable to IRL, the idea we cant use two visual tasks is helpful to learn how to multitask more efficiently. Cons based on case studies: weak as there can be extraneous variables ( individual differences ), ungeneralisable, different causes, might have pre existing problems, genetic conditions etc. Case of H.M: ( WMM ) : unclear on the episodic buffer all three: machine reductionist : all think that we process things in a very linear way, too simplistic for reality of complex system.

Answer 12

has severe amnesia NO STM OKAY LTM: had procedural memory cause he remembered howto play piano ( supports Tulvings three types of memory ) had some semantic memory : understood words and understanding, but didn’t know the year, so only some semantic memory is intact

Answer 13

One memory disturbing the ability to recall the other, resulting in forgetting/ distorting memories.

Answer 14

Proactive and retro active

Answer 15

(going forward). ‘Pro’ trying to be recalled Old memories interfering with new ones. New information is trying to be recalled but you can’t.

Answer 16

going back). ‘Retro’ trying to be recalled New memories interfering with old ones. So old ones are trying to be recalled but you can’t.

Answer 17

Studying retroactive information, by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of info Participants had to learn a list of words until 100% accuracy ( this is the old info ) They then learnt a new list, and there were six groups who had to learn different types of lists. Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Operationalised: The more similar the information, the more likely there is an effect/level of interference. Group 1 had the most interference Group 6 had the least Also we know the LTM is semantically coded, so it makes sense. Experimental design: - Independent measure - No order effects ( no similar/ opposite lists, jsut one type ) Cannot control participant variables: IQ, memory ability, tiredness FINDING The graph shows that the less similarity between the new and the old test, the less interference there is and the more recall the groups had. It shows similarity has a significant influence on interference.

Answer 18

Schmidt Keppel and underwood Baddeley and hitch

Answer 19

Schmidt (2000) - learning new street names made recalling old ones difficult. Has real life application of retroactive interference

Answer 20

investigated retroactive interference in everyday memory. Sample of men who played every match and some who missed games The players who played most games forgot more games than those who played less Conclusion was that this is a result of retroactive interference, as most recent team names interfered with old team names causing forgetting

Answer 21

When forgetting happens from an absence of cues to access a memory Cues are triggers that help us access a memory

Answer 22

Are the triggers to help us access a memory Types of Cues: External environmental cues - place your are in, setting etc Internal cues - mental state, stressed/happy etc Mnemonics - meaningful link, so it can be song, rhyme etc. so its a cue that uses a meaningful info

Answer 23

Two types of cue-dependant forgetting 1: External Environmental cues = context dependant forgetting. For eg: being in a place that inhibits a memory. 2: Internal Cues = state dependant forgetting. For eg: being in a different mood/state of arousal that might inhibit memory.

Answer 24

Godden and Baddeley (‘75): context dependant forgetting evidence Gave 18 divers 36 words to learn and recall. They found that the groups that learnt and recalled in the same environment had higher levels of retrieval. Shows context dependant forgetting Finding: Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching condition of environment, in comparison to the matching environmental condition. Shows when they learn+recall in same place they are less likely to experience retrieval failure

Answer 25

State dependant forgetting evidence gave people anti- histamines meds, inducing a certain state of mind different from normal state: awake and alert ( drowsy, tired ) Learning on drug/off drug, recalling on drug/off drug Pros there is real life application, for example eyewitness testimony Supporting: Miles and Hardman: found that people who learnt a list of words whilst excersising, recalled better when excersising than whilst in rest Cons beta bias: has low population validity, nomothetic approach is inaccurate

Answer 26

Theory that there has to be a cue resent at encoding(when the info is being learnt) and at retrieval (recall) So when we cant retrieve a memory its because the cues aren’t present at retrieval, or, cues at encoding and retrieval are different TULVING 1983

Answer 27

Tulving encoding specifity principle Godden and Baddeley Carter and Cassaday Miles and hardman Conflicting Baddeley

Answer 28

Miles and Hardman: found that people who learnt a list of words whilst excersising, recalled better when excersising than whilst in rest

Answer 29

Aggleton and Waskett (1999): found that recreation smells ink the Jorvik museum helped peop;le recal the details of the trip to the museum more accurately after years. Shows evidence for context dependant forgetting.

Answer 30

Found that students who took a test in same setting they learnt it in did better Context dependant retrieval

Answer 31

Misleading info Anxiety PED

Answer 32

Eye witness Testimony : the ability to remember details of a key event, for example accidents that they saw firsthand

Answer 33

Misleading information : incorrect info can influence eyewitness recall ability to recall, taking forms such as leading questions or post event discussion.

Answer 34

Leading questions: a question that is purposely phrased in a way that can imply a certain response.

Answer 35

Memory didnt change, changed our answer (response bias explanation) Our memory does change ( substitution explanation )

Answer 36

First type of misleading information:LQ Loftus and Palmer (74) - experiment one Mean estimated speed for ‘contacted’ = 31.8 mph Mean estimated for ‘smashed’ = 40.5 mph Why does this happen? Because of the response bias explanation this means there is a change in answer but not memory. The leading question encourages them to change their answers.

Answer 37

Experiment two : Broken glass Three group A: ‘smashed’ B: ‘hit’ C: control group, no result There was no actual glass breaking but they asked a week later after ‘did you see broken glass’ 32% for smash said yes 14% for hit said yes 12% of control group said yes Why? Two explanations Substitution explanation: the leading question actually changes the participants memory. Response bias: the leading question impacts the answer not the actual memory of the individual.

Answer 38

Evaluation: the broken glass experiment ( experiment two ) : has order effects. These might’ve affected the IV and means the level to which people remember the video might differentiate. Extraneous variables might lower the internal validity which means it’s hard to draw conclusions because the extraneous variables affect the dependant variable. Its hard to state cause and effect relationship being a lab study there might be low mundane realism because its an artificial task. In reality you are in the actual accident whereas watching the video in comparison to being in a car accident isn’t accurate representation of real life. Its hard to generalise to real life. experimental reductionism: the complex part is the memory/forgettinbg/eye witness testimony, and the simple variable in this case is the accuracy of their eyewitness testimony.

Answer 39

Post event discussion : PED - when the cowitnesses of a crime discus what they saw and their testimonies are contaminated

Answer 40

Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs and each pair watched same video from diff angles. Then in pairs they discussed before doing individual recall test. 71% of participants recalled aspects they didnt see Control group: 0% of participants recalled incorrect info Conclusion: PED can alter the accuracy of your EWT

Answer 41

1. Response bias and substitution bias 2. Memory contamination and memory conformity

Answer 42

Gabbert et al Bodner et al (2009)

Answer 43

Memory contamination: memory is altered/distorted because they combine info with others and their own Memory conformity: could either be ISI or NSI. Unlike memory contamination, memory is not changed.

Answer 44

Memory contamination: memory is altered/distorted because they combine info with others and their own

Answer 45

Memory conformity: could either be ISI or NSI. Unlike memory contamination, memory is not changed.

Answer 46

Evaluation:ll lacks mundane realism: they knew they were participating in a study, so there could be demand characteristics, they could be paying more attention/no emotional impact either. Doesn’t say what causes the explanations, substitution or response bias? Memory contamination or conformity? There are still remaining questions

Answer 47

Bodner et al (2009) found that effects of post event discussion are reduced if participants are warned about how their memories can alter. Recall was more accurate for the participants who were warned which supports Gabberts findings

Answer 48

Anxiety - state of emotional and physical arousal. It can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony Emotions = worried thoughts/feelings tension Physical = increased heart rate/sweating

Answer 49

Yerkes Dodson law : states that the relationship between emotional arousal and performance adheres to an inverted U. Therefore there is an optimum level of anxiety for optimal EWT. People who are least stressed/too stressed have the least accurate testimony

Answer 50

fight/flight response is triggered which increases arousal of body, creating an increase in alertness. Allows people to tend to more cues Paying attention to more cues means more info can be retrieved rather than forgotten therefore increasing accuracy of EWT Yerkes and Dodson law - optimal anxiety=anxiety is optimal Yuille and Cutshall

Answer 51

Negative influence of EWT overly aroused ( over alert/anxious) reduces our ability to attend to cues Tunnel vision: attention narrows to one aspect of situation Weapon focus effect: attention on threat (weapon, blood) means we miss other important info Results in RETRIEVAL FAILURE causing EWT to be less accurate

Answer 52

Tunnel vision: attention narrows to one aspect of situation Negative influence of anxiety on EWT

Answer 53

Weapon focus effect: attention on threat (weapon, blood) means we miss other important info Results in RETRIEVAL FAILURE causing EWT to be less accurate Negative result of anxiety on EWT

Answer 54

Yuille and Cutshall. (1986) - study of a real shooting of shop owner shooting a thief. 21 witnesses, 13 participants in study Interviews carries out 4-5 months after Comparing their answers straight after the event and then the interviews 4-5 after, their memory was accurate to first testimony Participants did rate from stress at time using 7 point scale Those who rated highest level of stress were most accurate in recall: 88%, in comparison to 75%, supports the Yerkes Dodson Law ANXIETIES POSITIVE INFLUENCE :

Answer 55

Strengths: high mundane realism, means there is high ecological validity. The setting was real, meaning it increases scientific credibility and understanding of EWT. This suggests this study has high external validity, generalisability Weaknesses: field study: extraneous variables, leading question, PED, medicine, therapy lots of things between event and the interview. Population validity is lowered, because it is in an USA, where gun shootings are common. If it were in the uk the stress might be higher. Cultural validity is low Not replicable, its a field experiment, we dont know that the results will be consistent. Cant test reliability of study.

Answer 56

ANXIETIES NEGATIVE INFLUENCE - Johnson and Scott (1976) Participants believed they were taking part in lab experiment and in waiting room they heard argument LOW ANXIETY CONDITION - man walked through waiting room after argument with pen and grease on hands. HIGH ANXIETY CONDITION - same argument, but broken glass, man walked through waiting room with a paper knife and blood. FINDINGS - participants identified man from 50 photos From low anxiety condition, 49% accurately recalled From high anxiety, 33% accurately recalled CONCLUSION Tunnel theory of memory - witness attention narrows down to weapon (weapon focus effect) due to it being the source of anxiety

Answer 57

Strengths lab experiment: controlled and no demand characteristics. There might be increased internal validity as they are unaware of true aim and act naturally. Single blind procedure: lowered demand characteristics, means that anxiety’s negative influence has higher validity Weaknesses independent measures experiment - might be extraneous variables such as mental state of participants, emotional state, time of day. Also order effects - tiredness etc Ecological validity might not be too high in comparison to a field study etc. however, the setting is realistic, adn it’s created in a real waiting room for something.

Answer 58

Pickel (1998): testing whether weapon focus effect is because of anxiety at weapon or surprise at weapon He had an item in a hairdressing salon video: scissors (expected control item), chicken, handgun eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the unusual surprise conditions chicken and handgun Shows that weapon focus effect may be due to unsualness rather than threat and so doesn’t tell us about the effects of anxiety EWT

Answer 59

police technique for interviewing witnesses, encouraging them to create original o text to increase accessibility to stored info

Answer 60

Limitations of olive interview: discovered by Geiselman and colleagues (1985) the negative effects techniques often are in non chronological order Jumps between different memory modalities aka physcial appearances to recalling dialogue Leading questions?

Answer 61

Fisher and Geiselman (92) Reviews memory literature, people remember things better if they are provided with retrieval cues. These are four stages. RRCC Report everything Reinstatement of context Change order Change perspective. Report everything Witnesses have to include everything even irrelevant, as they might trigger important memories. They are retrieving episodic (memories) and semantic (factual) memories using context and state dependant cues. Elaborative rehearsal here will enhance report. Reinstatement of context Witnesses should return to original crime scene in mind using five senses. This technique is dependant on context dependant failure, by getting them to recall every detail, they can recall every cue Change order Prevents people from reporting what they expected happen and focus on actual event. They won’t rely on schema or IWM. Due to recency effect: people tend to recall more recent events better than old ones. Change perspective. Schemas about effect can creat expectations which might affect accuracy of recall so therefore doing it from a different perspective forces you to think slower and consider accuracy of your OWN recall.

Answer 62

Report everything Reinstatement of context Change order Change perspective. Report everything Witnesses have to include everything even irrelevant, as they might trigger important memories. They are retrieving episodic (memories) and semantic (factual) memories using context and state dependant cues. Elaborative rehearsal here will enhance report. Reinstatement of context Witnesses should return to original crime scene in mind using five senses. This technique is dependant on context dependant failure, by getting them to recall every detail, they can recall every cue Change order Prevents people from reporting what they expected happen and focus on actual event. They won’t rely on schema or IWM. Due to recency effect: people tend to recall more recent events better than old ones. Change perspective. Schemas about effect can creat expectations which might affect accuracy of recall so therefore doing it from a different perspective forces you to think slower and consider accuracy of your OWN recall.

Answer 63

Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI) Fisher et al: developed elements to add which focus on social dynamics between witness and interviewer. Eye contact, reducing eyewitness anxiety, distractions, speak slowly, open ended questions

Answer 64

Pros high mundane realism (Geiselman et al), there is high external validity, which you can apply to real life. CI can benefit society and reduce wrongly accused. Better than standard interview Cons There could be individual differences Increases amount of false positives (additional things that didnt actually happen)

Answer 65

Kohnken Fisher et al Centofanti and reece Finding more important elements of CI Milne and Bull Mello and Fisher

Answer 66

Fisher et al (1989): trained detectives found 46% more information after their CI training, which was over 90% accurate.

Answer 67

Centofanti and Reece (2006) - there is still susceptibility to misleading info showed participants a video and r then gave them either misleading or neutral post event summary. They recalled 35% more information with CI techniques but it wasn’t necessarily accurate. Post event discussion can still greatly influence account.

Answer 68

Milne and Bull Mello and Fisher

Answer 69

found that average number of correct items recalled is higher in cognitive interview rather than standard.

Answer 70

(2002) - each element of the CI used individually produced ‘more information’ than the standard police interview. However ‘more’ information isn’t necessary ‘more accurate’ information They found that report everything and context reinforment create better recall together.

Answer 71

Mello and Fisher (1996): supports the idea there are individual differences. 30 participants : average of 72 years old. 20 participants : average of 22 years old. They found that CI elicited more info, and didnt reduce accuracy rate. Bigger advantage for older group of participants rather than younger Shows individual differences.

Answer 72

Wright and Holliday - how age affected recall. found that CI technique allows greater detail from older participants with no false positives Shows that it can be sued to possibly reduce age bias on recall ( ppt bias ).

Answer 73

meta analysis of 50 studies The ECI was consistently proving 81% MORE CORRECT INFO than the standard interview. STRENGTH: practical benefits and influential on policing and evidence shows that the accuracy of eyewitness testimony can be improved

Answer 74

- Reductionist: hard to define and measure anxiety, it has cognitive, emotional and behavioural different meanings - Inverted-U explanation: more likely assuming effect of only one element of anxiety for eg, physical arousal (behavioural), which is reductionist