memory

Question 1

Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM) AO1+2

Answer 1

AO1 (Knowledge):

Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968), the MSM describes memory as a linear system with three stores:

1️⃣ Sensory Register – Duration: Less than 1 second, Capacity: Very large, Coding: Modality-specific. In a raw, unprocessed form.
2️⃣ Short-Term Memory (STM) – Duration: 18-30 seconds, Capacity: 7±2 items (Miller), Coding: Acoustic.
3️⃣ Long-Term Memory (LTM) – Duration: Unlimited, Capacity: Unlimited, Coding: Semantic.

AO2 (Application):

• The serial position effect supports MSM, showing that people tend to recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list better than those in the middle.
• Baddeley (1966) found that words with similar sounds are more difficult to recall in STM than words with different sounds, suggesting that STM is coded acoustically.

Question 2

Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM) AO3

Answer 2

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Supported by HM case study, where STM was impaired but LTM remained intact.
• Supporting evidence: Studies like the serial position effect support the existence of separate stores for short-term and long-term memory.
• The clear distinction between STM and LTM has provided a foundation for later research on memory models (e.g., the Working Memory Model).

❌ Weaknesses:

• Oversimplified: The MSM is too simplistic, as it suggests a linear flow of information, but newer research shows that LTM and STM are not as distinct as the model proposes.
• Lack of explanation: MSM doesn’t explain how information is transferred from STM to LTM (e.g., rehearsal, elaboration).

Synoptic Links:
• Biological approach: HM case study (hippocampus damage).
• Cognitive approach: Supports information processing models.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember MSM Features:

“Some Silly Lemurs Drink Coffee”
• Sensory Register
• STM
• LTM
• Duration
• Capacity

Question 3

Working Memory Model (WMM)

Answer 3

AO1 (Knowledge):

Proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974), the WMM focuses on active processing in STM, consisting of:

1️⃣ Central Executive – Controls attention, limited capacity.
2️⃣ Phonological Loop – Deals with auditory information (phonological store + articulatory control process).
3️⃣ Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad – Visual and spatial tasks.
4️⃣ Episodic Buffer – Integrates information from other components and LTM.

AO2 (Application):

Explains dual-task performance, e.g., listening to music while driving affects concentration.

Question 4

Working Memory Model (WMM) AO3

Answer 4

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Supported by KF case study, where verbal STM was damaged, but visual STM was intact.
• Explains real-life multitasking and individual differences in memory performance.
• Supporting evidence: Studies like Baddeley’s dual-task research provide strong support for the separate components of the WMM.
• Practical applications: The model can explain memory issues in real-life scenarios, such as cognitive difficulties in individuals with brain injuries or learning disabilities.

❌ Weaknesses:

• Unclear CE: The central executive is vague and lacks clarity. It is not well understood how it functions, and there is little empirical evidence about its specific nature.
• Lack of biological evidence: The WMM lacks direct biological evidence linking memory components to specific brain regions.
• Lacks evidence for the Episodic Buffer.

Synoptic Links:
• Cognitive neuroscience: Brain scans show different areas active during verbal vs. visual tasks.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember WMM Components:

“Cows Play Violins Eagerly”
• Central Executive
• Phonological Loop
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
• Episodic Buffer

Question 5

Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO1+2

Answer 5

AO1 (Knowledge):

Proposed by Tulving (1972):

1️⃣ Episodic Memory – Personal experiences (e.g., first day of school).
2️⃣ Semantic Memory – Knowledge and facts (e.g., capital of France).
3️⃣ Procedural Memory – Skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).

AO2 (Application):

Explains why Clive Wearing could play the piano (procedural memory intact) but couldn’t recall his wedding day (episodic memory damaged).

Question 6

Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO3

Answer 6

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Brain scan evidence shows episodic memory activates the hippocampus, while procedural memory activates the cerebellum.
• Supports the idea that LTM is not a single store.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Case studies like Clive Wearing lack generalisability.
• Unclear whether semantic and episodic memories are entirely separate.

Synoptic Links:
• Biological approach: Brain damage and localisation of function.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Types of LTM:

“Every Silly Penguin”
• Episodic
• Semantic
• Procedural

Question 7

Explanations for Forgetting – Interference Theory AO1+2

Answer 7

AO1 (Knowledge):

Interference occurs when two sets of information compete, leading to forgetting.

1️⃣ Proactive Interference – Old information interferes with new (e.g., struggling to learn a new phone number after memorising the old one).
2️⃣ Retroactive Interference – New information interferes with old (e.g., learning a new language and forgetting vocabulary from a previously learned one).

AO2 (Application):

Baddeley & Hitch (1977) found rugby players who played more games forgot the names of previous teams due to retroactive interference.

• Underwood (1957) found that participants’ recall of new lists of words was impaired by previous lists.
• McGeoch & McDonald (1931) showed that when participants learned similar lists, retroactive interference was stronger.

Question 8

Explanations for Forgetting – Interference Theory AO3

Answer 8

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Lab studies (e.g., McGeoch & McDonald) show interference effects when participants recall word lists.
• Real-life applications in education (e.g., revision schedules to avoid learning similar subjects back-to-back).

❌ Weaknesses:
• Lacks ecological validity due to artificial lab settings.
• Doesn’t explain all types of forgetting (e.g., forgetting due to emotional trauma).
• Individual differences: Older adults may experience more interference due to cognitive decline.

Synoptic Links:
• Cognitive approach: Memory is an active process, not a passive store.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Interference Types:

“PR for Interference”
• Proactive = Remembering old info disrupts new.
• Retroactive = New info disrupts old.

Question 9

Explanations for Forgetting – Retrieval Failure AO1+2

Answer 9

AO1 (Knowledge):
Memory is not always an accurate record of events; it can be influenced by context and the environment in which retrieval occurs. This is related to the encoding specificity principle, which suggests that memory is better when retrieval occurs in the same context as encoding.

Forgetting occurs due to the absence of cues that trigger memory.

1️⃣ Context-Dependent Forgetting – Recall is better when external environment matches the original learning context (e.g., revising in the same exam room).
2️⃣ State-Dependent Forgetting – Recall is better when internal state (e.g., mood or intoxication) is the same as during learning.

AO2 (Application):

Godden & Baddeley (1975) found divers who learned words underwater recalled them better when tested underwater than on land.
• Goodwin et al. (1969) showed that state-dependent forgetting occurs when participants who learned information in a certain state (e.g., drunk) recalled it better when in the same state.

Question 10

Explanations for Forgetting – Retrieval Failure AO3

Answer 10

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Real-life applications in eyewitness testimony (cognitive interview uses context reinstatement).
• Supported by Carter & Cassaday (1998) on state-dependent forgetting (anti-histamine study).

❌ Weaknesses:
• Context effects are weak in real-life situations.
• Artificial lab studies reduce ecological validity.

• Not all memories rely on context or state-dependent cues; other factors such as rehearsal or attention are also important.
• Cues may not be sufficient on their own to trigger recall in real-life situations.

Synoptic Links:
• Cognitive interview techniques in forensic psychology.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Retrieval Failure:

“CUE for Forgetting”
• Context-Dependent
• Underwater Study
• External and Internal Cues

Question 11

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony – Misleading Information AO1+2

Answer 11

AO1 (Knowledge):

Misleading information can distort memory through:

1️⃣ Leading Questions – Questions that suggest a certain answer (e.g., “How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?”).
2️⃣ Post-Event Discussion – When witnesses discuss an event, their memories become contaminated by others’ accounts.

AO2 (Application):

• Loftus & Palmer (1974) found that participants who were asked leading questions (e.g., “How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?”) estimated the speed to be higher than those who were asked less leading questions. Smashed vs hit.
• Gabbert et al. (2003) showed that when participants discussed an event, 71% of ppl incorporated incorrect details from others’ accounts into their own memories (memory conformity).

Question 12

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony – Misleading Information AO3

Answer 12

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• • Lab-based evidence: Loftus & Palmer’s studies are considered classic, providing clear evidence for how leading questions can affect eyewitness recall + High control in lab settings allows for establishing cause and effect.

• Practical implications: Highlights the need for careful questioning by police and the dangers of relying too heavily on eyewitness testimony in court.

❌ Weaknesses:

• Artificiality: Laboratory settings in Loftus & Palmer’s studies may lack ecological validity, as the participants were watching videos rather than experiencing a real accident.
• Individual differences: Some individuals may be more susceptible to misleading information than others.

Synoptic Links:
• Ethical considerations in protecting witnesses from psychological harm.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Misleading Information:

“Loftus and Gabbert Lead the Way”
• Loftus = Leading questions
• Gabbert = Post-event discussion

Question 13

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony – Anxiety AO1+2

Answer 13

AO1 (Knowledge):

Anxiety can affect recall in two ways:

1️⃣ Weapon Focus Effect – High anxiety narrows attention to central details (e.g., the weapon), reducing recall of peripheral details.
2️⃣ Inverted U Hypothesis (Yerkes-Dodson Law) – Moderate anxiety improves performance, but too much or too little anxiety impairs memory.

AO2 (Application):
• Johnson & Scott (1976) found participants who witnessed a man with a knife had poorer facial recognition than those who saw a man with a pen.
• Yuille & Cutshall (1986) found witnesses of a real-life shooting with high anxiety had more accurate recall months later.

Question 14

Factors Affecting Eyewitness Testimony – Anxiety AO3

Answer 14

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Real-life studies (Yuille & Cutshall) have high ecological validity.
• Supports the role of emotional state in memory recall.
• Practical applications: This research can inform police questioning strategies and improve the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Ethical issues: Inducing anxiety in lab settings is unethical.

• Individual differences: Different people respond to anxiety in different ways, and factors such as personality may influence recall.
• Conflicting evidence: Some studies show that anxiety can improve recall, while others show that it impairs recall. This suggests that the relationship may not be straightforward.

Synoptic Links:
• Biological approach: Role of adrenaline and the fight-or-flight response.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Anxiety Effects:

“Worry Warps Witness Memory”
• Weapon Focus Effect
• Witness accuracy
• Yerkes-Dodson Law

Question 15

Cognitive Interview (CI) AO1+2

Answer 15

AO1 (Knowledge):

Developed by Fisher & Geiselman (1992), the Cognitive Interview aims to improve eyewitness recall by reducing suggestibility and increasing accuracy. It involves four main techniques:

1️⃣ Context Reinstatement – Mentally recreating the physical and emotional context of the event to trigger memories.
2️⃣ Report Everything – Witnesses are encouraged to recall all details, even if they seem trivial or irrelevant.
3️⃣ Reversing the Order – Recalling events in a different order to prevent recall from being influenced by expectations.
4️⃣ Changing Perspective – Recalling the event from different perspectives (e.g., what another witness might have seen).

AO2 (Application):
• Fisher et al. (1987) found the CI improved the accuracy of recall in real-life police interviews.
• Helps witnesses provide richer, more accurate accounts of events.

Question 16

Cognitive Interview (CI) AO3

Answer 16

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Studies show that CI improves accuracy compared to standard police interviewing techniques (Fisher et al., 1987).
• Effective in obtaining detailed, accurate information in criminal investigations.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and requires skilled interviewers, making it impractical in some situations.
• Risk of increased misinformation: Encouraging witnesses to recall everything can lead to false memories.

Synoptic Links:
• Psychological applications in forensic psychology, such as criminal investigations.
• Cognitive approach: Focus on improving the retrieval of memory through structured techniques.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember CI Techniques:

“R-E-R-C”
• Report Everything
• Encourage Context Reinstatement
• Reverse the Order
• Change Perspective

Question 17

The Effect of Age on Memory AO1+2

Answer 17

AO1 (Knowledge):

Age can affect memory performance, with differences in:

1️⃣ Younger Children – Often have less effective memory strategies and are more susceptible to misleading information.
2️⃣ Older Adults – May experience decline in episodic memory, particularly in recalling specific details.

AO2 (Application):
• Foley et al. (2002) found that older adults have more difficulty in recall and recognition tasks, especially under stressful conditions.
• Younger children are more prone to false memories, especially under suggestive questioning.

Question 18

The Effect of Age on Memory AO3

Answer 18

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Studies with children and older adults have shown age differences in eyewitness accuracy.
• Real-life relevance in court settings where age can impact a witness’s reliability.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Age-related differences may be influenced by factors such as cognitive development or health conditions.
• Research often lacks ecological validity in experimental settings.

Synoptic Links:
• Cognitive development in children (Piaget’s stages of cognitive development).
• Cognitive decline in older adults (biological explanations for aging).

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Age Effects:

“Cognitive Aging Alters Recall”
• Children’s memory
• Aging adults
• Accuracy
• Recall

Question 19

Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony – The enhanced Cognitive Interview AO1+2

Answer 19

AO1 (Knowledge):

To improve eyewitness testimony accuracy, researchers suggest several methods:

1️⃣ The Cognitive Interview (CI) (covered earlier)
2️⃣ The Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI) – Fisher et al. (1987) improved the CI by adding elements such as focusing on the witness’s emotions and making the witness feel relaxed.

AO2 (Application):
• The Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI) is especially useful in reducing anxiety and increasing recall accuracy in vulnerable witnesses (e.g., children or victims of trauma).
• Köhnken et al. (1999) meta-analysis found the ECI increased the amount of correct information recalled without increasing the amount of incorrect information.

Question 20

Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony – The enhanced Cognitive Interview AO3

Answer 20

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• The ECI has been shown to improve the quality and quantity of recall without adding false details.
• The techniques are widely used by police forces to increase the accuracy of testimonies.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and requires highly trained officers.
• May not be practical in high-pressure, fast-paced situations (e.g., urgent police investigations).

Synoptic Links:
• Psychological applications: Enhanced Cognitive Interview in real-life police work.
• Cognitive approach: Focus on the individual’s mental process and memory retrieval techniques.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember ECI Features:

“PEACE”
• Promoting relaxation
• Encouraging details
• Active listening
• Control over anxiety
• Empathy

Question 21

Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO1+2

Answer 21

AO1 (Knowledge):

Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM) are two distinct memory systems:

1️⃣ STM – Temporarily holds limited information.
• Capacity: 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956)
• Duration: 18-30 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)
• Encoding: Primarily acoustic (Baddeley, 1966)

2️⃣ LTM – Stores information over extended periods.
• Capacity: Unlimited
• Duration: Potentially a lifetime
• Encoding: Primarily semantic (Baddeley, 1966)

AO2 (Application):
• Miller’s Magic Number: STM has a limited capacity, but chunking can help increase its capacity (e.g., remembering phone numbers in chunks).
• Rehearsal: Helps to transfer information from STM to LTM (e.g., repetition or elaborative rehearsal).

Question 22

Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO3

Answer 22

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Lab-based research (e.g., Peterson & Peterson) supports the distinction between STM and LTM with clear findings on duration and encoding.
• Case studies (e.g., HM) show dissociation between STM and LTM (damage to the hippocampus affects LTM but leaves STM intact).

❌ Weaknesses:
• Over-simplification: The model may oversimplify memory processes. Other research suggests STM may not always work in the way the model suggests (e.g., working memory model).
• LTM encoding: The role of semantic encoding in LTM is not always clear (e.g., some memories are encoded visually).

Synoptic Links:
• Working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch): STM is better understood through the multi-component working memory model.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Differences Between STM and LTM:

“Capacity Can Durably Encode”
• Capacity (unlimited for LTM)
• Chunking (helps STM)
• Duration (long for LTM)
• Encoding (acoustic for STM, semantic for LTM)

Question 23

The Working Memory Model (WMM) AO1+2

Answer 23

AO1 (Knowledge):

The Working Memory Model (WMM), proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974), is an alternative to the multi-store model and divides STM into multiple components:

1️⃣ Central Executive – Oversees and coordinates cognitive processes; has limited capacity.
2️⃣ Phonological Loop – Stores and processes verbal and auditory information.
• Articulatory Control Process – Rehearses verbal information.
• Phonological Store – Holds verbal information briefly.
3️⃣ Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad – Stores and processes visual and spatial information.
4️⃣ Episodic Buffer – Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and LTM into a coherent episode.

AO2 (Application):
• Baddeley et al. (1975) demonstrated that people struggle with two tasks that use the same component (e.g., verbal tasks interfere with other verbal tasks), supporting the existence of separate components.
• Dual-task performance studies show different components are used for visual and verbal tasks (e.g., performing a visual and auditory task at the same time is easier than performing two visual tasks).

Question 24

The Working Memory Model (WMM) AO3

Answer 24

AO3 (Evaluation):

✅ Strengths:
• Supported by evidence from neuropsychological cases (e.g., patient KF had poor verbal memory but intact visual memory, supporting the separation of the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad).
• Explains complex memory tasks more effectively than the multi-store model.

❌ Weaknesses:
• Central Executive is poorly defined; it’s unclear how it works or how it interacts with other components.
• Lack of research on the episodic buffer and how it works in complex memory retrieval tasks.

Synoptic Links:
• Cognitive approach: Explains cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, with more complexity than earlier models.
• Memory and perception: The WMM suggests that memory is an active process rather than a passive store.

🎯 Mnemonic to Remember the WMM Components:

“Cathy Pushed Vicky Every Time”
• Central Executive
• Phonological Loop
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
• Episodic Buffer

Question 25

Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO1+2

Answer 25

AO1 (Knowledge):   LTM is not a unitary store, but is divided into three types:   1️⃣ Explicit (Declarative) Memory – Involves conscious recall. • Episodic Memory: Memory of specific events and experiences (e.g., your last birthday). • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., Paris is the capital of France).   2️⃣ Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory – Involves unconscious recall. • Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike). AO2 (Application): • Tulving (1972) proposed the distinction between episodic and semantic memory. • HM (Henry Molaison) had his hippocampus removed, resulting in an inability to form new episodic memories but retaining procedural memory (e.g., he could learn new skills).

Question 26

Types of Long-Term Memory (LTM) AO3

Answer 26

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Supported by neuropsychological evidence (e.g., the case of HM). • The distinction between episodic and semantic memory is useful in understanding memory disorders.   ❌ Weaknesses: • The model lacks clarity about how these different types of memory interact. • Some researchers argue there may be other types of memory (e.g., emotional memories). Synoptic Links: • Cognitive approach: Explains the complexity of LTM and its role in everyday functioning. • Biological approach: Supported by evidence of separate brain areas for episodic, semantic, and procedural memory (e.g., hippocampus, cerebellum). 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember LTM Types:   “Every Single Person” • Episodic • Semantic • Procedural

Question 27

Cognitive Development – Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development AO1+2

Answer 27

AO1 (Knowledge):   Jean Piaget proposed that children go through four stages of cognitive development:   1️⃣ Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Knowledge is based on sensory experiences and motor activities. Object permanence develops. 2️⃣ Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children develop symbolic thinking but lack logical operations. They are egocentric and struggle with conservation tasks. 3️⃣ Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children can perform logical operations but only with concrete information (not abstract). They understand conservation and reversibility. 4️⃣ Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): Adolescents develop abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and problem-solving abilities. AO2 (Application): • Piaget’s stages are used in educational psychology to design age-appropriate learning activities. For example, tasks in the preoperational stage often involve symbolic play, while those in the concrete operational stage focus on hands-on activities. • The stages have been applied in understanding the development of moral reasoning in children.

Question 28

Cognitive Development – Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development AO3

Answer 28

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Piaget’s theory is supported by many studies (e.g., Conservation tasks), which show that children’s thinking changes in predictable ways as they age. • His theory has laid the foundation for research in developmental psychology.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Underestimation of children’s abilities: Some studies have shown that children can perform certain tasks earlier than Piaget predicted (e.g., babies can have object permanence before 8 months). • Cultural differences: Piaget’s stages may not apply universally; children from different cultures may develop cognitive abilities at different rates. Synoptic Links: • Developmental Psychology: Piaget’s stages form the basis for understanding cognitive growth. • Nature vs. Nurture: Piaget’s theory focuses on nature (biological maturation), but the environment also plays a role in cognitive development. 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Piaget’s Stages:   “Some People Can Fly” • Sensorimotor • Preoperational • Concrete Operational • Formal Operational

Question 29

The Role of Schemas in Memory AO1+2

Answer 29

AO1 (Knowledge):  Schemas are mental frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information. They are based on previous experiences and influence the way we encode, store, and recall information. 1️⃣ Schema Theory: Bartlett (1932) suggested that memories are reconstructed using schemas, which can fill in gaps and distort recollection, especially when recalling unfamiliar or complex events. 2️⃣ Types of Schemas: There are various types of schemas, such as: • Person schemas: Represent information about specific individuals. • Event schemas (scripts): Represent typical sequences of actions or events. • Social schemas: Represent knowledge about social roles and behaviors. • Schemas in memory: Provide shortcuts for processing information but can lead to memory distortion (e.g., filling in missing details based on what we expect). • Bartlett (1932) conducted the War of the Ghosts study, showing how prior knowledge (schemas) can affect memory recall and cause distortion (e.g., participants altered unfamiliar details to make them more familiar). AO2 (Application): • Bartlett’s (1932) study demonstrated how schemas can influence memory and lead to reconstructive memory, where we may add or distort details to fit our expectations. • In eyewitness testimony, schemas can lead to inaccuracies when witnesses try to fill in gaps in their memories based on expectations or stereotypes.

Question 30

The Role of Schemas in Memory AO3

Answer 30

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Bartlett’s study offers strong evidence for the role of schemas in memory reconstruction and distortion. • Real-world applications: Understanding schemas can help improve eyewitness testimony accuracy, as witnesses can be trained to recognize how their schemas may affect their recall.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Cultural differences: Schemas are shaped by cultural background, which means memory may be influenced differently depending on cultural context. • Subjectivity: The concept of schemas is difficult to measure scientifically, and the role they play in memory can vary from person to person. Synoptic Links: • Cognitive approach: Memory reconstruction and the role of schemas in influencing recall. • Social approach: The role of social context and cultural background in shaping schemas and memory. 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember the Role of Schemas in Memory:   “Schemas Shape Stories” • Schemas • Shapes memory • Stores expectations

Question 31

Cognitive Development – Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development AO1+2

Answer 31

AO1 (Knowledge):   Lev Vygotsky proposed that cognitive development is a socially mediated process, with children learning through social interaction and cultural tools. His key ideas include:   1️⃣ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help. 2️⃣ Scaffolding: The support provided by a more knowledgeable other (e.g., a teacher or peer) that enables a child to perform tasks they cannot do alone. 3️⃣ Private Speech: Children often talk to themselves during tasks as a form of self-guidance and reflection. AO2 (Application): • Vygotsky’s concepts of ZPD and scaffolding are used in education to design learning activities that challenge students but also provide appropriate support. • Private speech is seen in children as they solve problems, demonstrating the cognitive benefits of talking through tasks.

Question 32

Cognitive Development – Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development AO3

Answer 32

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction in cognitive development and provides valuable insights into how children learn through collaboration. • Scaffolding has practical applications in teaching, where teachers can adjust the level of support based on a student’s current abilities.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Vygotsky’s ideas have been criticized for being too vague, particularly the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) concept, which is difficult to measure and apply consistently. • Cultural bias: The theory may not be universally applicable, as it was based on research in Eastern European societies and may not consider different educational or cultural practices. Synoptic Links: • Developmental Psychology: Provides an alternative to Piaget’s cognitive development stages, emphasizing the role of social influences on learning. • Social approach: Explores how cultural tools, language, and interaction shape cognitive abilities. 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Vygotsky’s Key Concepts:   “Zany Students Scaffolding Private Speech” • Zone of Proximal Development • Scaffolding • Private Speech

Question 33

LTM Encoding and Retrieval AO1

Answer 33

AO1 (Knowledge):   Long-Term Memory (LTM) is encoded through semantic encoding, where information is stored based on meaning rather than sound or visual appearance. LTM can be retrieved through semantic or episodic processes.   1️⃣ Semantic encoding: Information is processed by its meaning (e.g., understanding the meaning of words or concepts). 2️⃣ Episodic retrieval: Recalling specific events and experiences, often triggered by contextual cues. AO2 (Application): • Craik & Lockhart (1972) proposed that deeper processing (semantic encoding) leads to better LTM retention. • Tulving (1972) demonstrated the difference between episodic and semantic memory by using recall tasks where participants retrieved information they had either personally experienced (episodic) or learned (semantic).

Question 34

LTM Encoding and Retrieval AO3

Answer 34

✅ Strengths: • Supporting research: Studies by Craik & Lockhart and Tulving support the idea of semantic encoding leading to better memory retention. • Practical applications: Techniques like elaborative rehearsal can improve encoding and retrieval from LTM in educational contexts.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Overemphasis on semantic encoding: Research has shown that encoding can be multimodal (e.g., visual and auditory), but the model emphasizes semantic encoding alone. • Different retrieval cues: The models don’t account for all factors influencing retrieval (e.g., mood, environment). Synoptic Links: • Cognitive approach: Demonstrates how memory retrieval is influenced by encoding strategies and how different forms of memory are used in everyday life. • Biological approach: Studies show that different types of memory may be processed in different regions of the brain (e.g., hippocampus for episodic memory). 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember LTM Encoding:   “Semantic Episodes Stick” • Semantic encoding • Episodic retrieval

Question 35

The Role of the Hippocampus in Memory AO1

Answer 35

AO1 (Knowledge):   The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation of new long-term memories. It is located in the medial temporal lobe and is involved in the encoding and consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.   1️⃣ Declarative Memory: The hippocampus is primarily involved in the storage and retrieval of declarative memories, which include factual knowledge and events (episodic memory). 2️⃣ Spatial Memory: It also helps in remembering locations and navigating environments (spatial navigation). AO2 (Application): • HM (Henry Molaison): HM’s case provided critical evidence for the role of the hippocampus. After an operation to remove his hippocampus, he was unable to form new long-term memories, supporting the idea that the hippocampus is essential for memory consolidation. • Neuroimaging studies: Techniques like fMRI show that the hippocampus is activated when individuals engage in tasks that require memory retrieval, further supporting its role.

Question 36

The Role of the Hippocampus in Memory AO3

Answer 36

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Support from case studies: The HM case study is one of the most influential pieces of evidence demonstrating the hippocampus’s role in memory formation. • Neuroimaging evidence: Studies using fMRI provide real-time data showing the hippocampus’ activation when people engage in memory tasks.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Generalization issues: The case of HM is unique, and it may not be representative of the general population, limiting the extent to which the findings can be applied broadly. • Complexity: While the hippocampus plays a crucial role, other areas of the brain also contribute to memory processing, suggesting that memory formation is more complex than just the hippocampus. Synoptic Links: • Biological approach: The hippocampus’ role in memory highlights the biological basis of memory processes. • Cognitive approach: Memory models like the WMM and MSM can be integrated with biological findings on brain function. 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember the Hippocampus Role:   “Hippocampus Helps Remember” • Hippocampus • Help with • Remembering (declarative memories)

Question 37

The Influence of Culture on Memory AO1

Answer 37

AO1 (Knowledge):   Culture influences how memories are formed, stored, and retrieved. Different cultural groups may emphasize different aspects of memory due to varying social norms, practices, and values.   1️⃣ Cultural Differences in Memory Encoding: People from collectivist cultures may prioritize family or community-related memories, whereas people from individualistic cultures may focus more on personal memories. 2️⃣ Memory Retrieval: Some cultures may place more emphasis on the retrieval of oral histories or group memories (e.g., indigenous cultures), while others emphasize written or individual memories. AO2 (Application): • Bartlett (1932) demonstrated cultural differences in memory through his War of the Ghosts experiment, where participants’ recall was influenced by their cultural background, leading to distortions in the story. • Cultural differences in eyewitness testimony: Cultural expectations may influence the way people recall events. For example, collectivist cultures may emphasize group-based details, while individualistic cultures may focus on personal experience.

Question 38

The Influence of Emotion on Memory AO1

Answer 38

AO1 (Knowledge):   Emotion plays a significant role in the encoding and retrieval of memories. Emotional experiences tend to be remembered more vividly and in greater detail than neutral experiences. This is often referred to as flashbulb memory.   1️⃣ Flashbulb Memories: These are vivid, long-lasting memories of significant, emotionally-charged events (e.g., 9/11). They are often more detailed than everyday memories but can still be inaccurate. 2️⃣ Stress and Memory: High levels of stress and arousal can either enhance or impair memory depending on the level of stress. For example, Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests that moderate stress can enhance memory, while extreme stress can hinder recall. AO2 (Application): • Flashbulb memory in real life: Events such as personal tragedies, natural disasters, or major global events often lead to the formation of flashbulb memories that people can recall with great detail. • Police use of eyewitness testimony: Understanding the influence of emotion on memory is crucial in police investigations. Witnesses may not always provide accurate details, even if they feel certain about their memories, due to emotional distortions.

Question 39

The Influence of Emotion on Memory AO3

Answer 39

AO3 (Evaluation):   ✅ Strengths: • Supporting evidence: Studies like Brown & Kulik (1977) on flashbulb memories and Cahill & McGaugh (1995) on the effects of stress hormones on memory support the role of emotion in enhancing memory. • Real-world applications: Recognizing the effects of emotion on memory helps improve practices in areas like eyewitness testimony and trauma counseling.   ❌ Weaknesses: • Inaccuracy of flashbulb memories: Despite their vividness, flashbulb memories are often inaccurate. For example, people often misremember details of events like where they were when they heard about a tragedy, indicating that emotion may distort memory. • Limited generalizability: Much of the research focuses on specific emotional events, meaning it may not generalize to all types of emotional experiences. Synoptic Links: • Cognitive approach: This demonstrates the interaction between emotion and cognitive processes, specifically how emotional arousal can affect memory encoding and recall. • Biological approach: The role of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline in memory formation and retrieval links memory to biological mechanisms. 🎯 Mnemonic to Remember the Influence of Emotion on Memory:   “EMotion Equals Memory” • Emotion • Memory • Enhanced recall