Memory Flashcards

(179 cards)

1
Q

What are the 3 types of memory

A

Sensory register
Long term memory
Short term memory

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2
Q

What is the sensory register

A

A memory store that holds impressions of information received by the five senses

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3
Q

What is the duration and capacity of the sensory register

A

Short duration
Large capacity

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4
Q

What is the short term memory

A

A temporary memory store for events in the present or immediate past

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5
Q

What is the duration and capacity of short term memory

A

Short duration
Small capacity

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6
Q

What is the long term memory

A

More permanent Memory store for events that have happened in the more distant past

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7
Q

What is the duration and capacity of long term memory

A

Long duration
Large capacity

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8
Q

Who were the key thinkers who investigated the duration of short term memory

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

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9
Q

Describe the procedure and findings of Peterson and Peterson’s investigation (procedure + findings) into the duration of short term memory

A
  • participants were briefly shown trigrams then asked to count backwards in 3s to prevent rehearsal.
  • asked to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9 -18 seconds
  • 80% recalled after 3secs, 10% after 18secs
    > DURATION OF STM IS 18 SECONDS
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10
Q

What is the duration of the stm

A

18 seconds

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11
Q

Which psychologists gave theories on the capacity of short term memory

A

Jacobs
Miller

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12
Q

Describe the procedure and findings of Jacobs research into the capacity of short term memory

A
  • participants had to recall a string of numbers / letters in order.
  • participants recalled 9 digits and 7 letters
    > found the stm has a limited storage space of 5 -9
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13
Q

What did Miller find about the capacity of the stm

A
  • Millers magic number > 7(+-2)
  • People can recall words equally as well as letters as we chunk information together
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14
Q

Who investigated the coding of short term memory

A

Baddley

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15
Q

Describe the procedure and findings of Baddleys investigation into the coding of short term memory

A
  • participants presented with 1/4 list of words [ acoustically (sounding) / semantically (meaning) dissimilar/ similar words]
  • participants were then given their original list in the wrong order and had to reorder correctly
  • participants given acoustically similar words performed worst as they confused similar sounding words
    > STM CODED ACOUSTICALLY
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16
Q

How is short term memory coded

A

Acoustically

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17
Q

Who used natural experiments to research the duration of long term memory

A

Bahrick et al

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18
Q

Describe the procedure of Bahrick et al’s research into the duration of long term memory

A
  • Tested over 300 ex high school students aged 17 - 74 on the names and faces of their former classmates
    -Tested: free recall, photo recognition, name recognition and matching names and photos
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19
Q

Describe the findings of Bahrick et al into the duration of long term memory

A
  • free recall considerably less acurate
  • face recognition 80% accurate, name recognition 40% after 48 years
    > ltm is better at recognition than recall and has an unlimited duration
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20
Q

What is the duration of long term memory

A

Unlimited

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21
Q

Who conducted an autobiographical study into the capacity of long term memory

A

Linton

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22
Q

Describe Linton’s research into the capacity of long term memory

A
  • autobiographical study using a memory diary to record life events for 6 years
  • Linton would have to recall the date of randomly selected events (selected by a researcher from the 5,500 items in total from the last 6 years)
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23
Q

Describe Linton’s findings into the capacity of long term memory

A
  • she found that she could recall events with a 70% accuracy after 7 years
    > concluded the capacity of ltm is very large, potentially unlimited
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24
Q

What is the capacity of long term memory

A

Very large potentially unlimited

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25
Who investigated the coding of long term memory
Baddeley
26
Describe the procedure Baddeley’s investigation into the coding of long term memory
- participants presented 1/4 lists of words - after a 20 minute interval doing another task participants were given the list jumbled up and had to reorder it correctly
27
Describe Baddeley’s Findings into the coding of long term memory
- those with the list of semantically similar words done the worst (55% correct) as they were confused by similar meaning words > ltm is coded semantically
28
How is long term memory coded
Semantically
29
Who investigated the capacity and duration of the sensory register
Sperling
30
Describe Sperling’s experiment into the capacity and duration of the sensory register
- participants were shown a grid of letters and numbers for 50 milliseconds - either asked to recall the whole think or just 1 row
31
Describe Sperling’s findings into the capacity and duration of the sensory register
- 42 % accuracy when asked to recall the whole thing but 75% when just 1 row > can assume all the digits were held in the SR but decayed rapidly as they managed to recall one row well
32
What is the capacity of the sensory register
Large
33
What is the duration of the sensory register
0.5 seconds
34
What did crowder discover about the how the duration is dependent on the coding of info in the sensory register
Visual / iconic info remains in the sensory register for a few milliseconds but auditory / echoic info lasts 2-3 seconds
35
How is the sensory register coded
There is a separate store for each sensory input ( visual = iconic store, auditory = echoic store, physical = haptic store )
36
What are the 2 models of memory
Multi store model Working memory model
37
Who came up with the multi store model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968 )
38
What does the multi store model of memory state about memory stores
- there are 3 types (sr, stm, ltm) - every stimulus you come across goes in one or more of these stores in order - each store retains a different amount of information, in a different way for a different length of time
39
What information is stored in the sensory register according to the multi store model of memory
- takes environmental stimuli (visual/ tactile/ auditory information) from sense organs and holds it in the same form ( iconic/ haptic/ echoic store) for 1/2 a second
40
How does information move from the SR to the STM according to the multi store model of memory
Attention
41
How is memory in the sensory register lost according to the multi store model of memory
Decay
42
What is short term memory according to the multi store model of memory
7(+-2) chunks of Acoustically coded Information lasting for 18 sseconds
43
How does information stay in the stm according to the multi store model of memory
Maintenance rehearsal
44
How is information in the stm lost according to the multi store model of memory
Decay and displacement
45
What is long term memory according to the multi store model
Semantically coded information with an unlimited capacity which is potentially permanent if rehearsed for pronged time
46
How is information from the LTM recalled carding to the multi store model
To recall all memories from the LTM Information must be transferred back to the short term memory by retrieval
47
How does information stay in the LTM according to the multi store model of memory
Prolonged maintenance rehearsal
48
How is information from the long term memory lost
Decay and interference
49
Why is Baddley’s research into the coding of memory positive evaluation for the multi store model of memory ( E, E, K)
- Baddley found we mix up words that sound similar in the STM but words that have similar meaning is the LTM - supports the idea that information is coded acoustically in STM but semantically in LTM proving they are 2 separate stores - supports the MSM as it provides evidence that STM and LTM are distinct separate memory stored with different types of coding as suggested by the MSM
50
Explain why the case of Clive Wearing is positive evaluation for the multi store model of memory (E,E,K)
- suffered brain damage and is unable to move new information into his LTM but still has a working SR and STM - supports the idea that memories are formed by passing information from one store to the next in a linear fashion - supports the MSM as it provides evidence for the existence of separate memory stores and the importance of the linear process of passing information between them
51
Explain evidence by SHALLICE & WARRINGTON to suggest that STM is not a unitary store is negative evaluation for the MSM (E,E,K)
- studies a patient with amnesia and found when recalling digits his STM was poor when they were read out loud to him but much better when he read the to himself - shows that STM has more than 1 store and there are separate stores for visual and auditory information - this shows that the MSM oversimplifies STM by treating it as a single store while evidence shows that there are different stores for different types of information
52
Explain why the importance of elaborative rehearsal is negative evaluation for the MSM (E,E,K)
- CRAIK AND WATKINS found that more that elaborative rehearsal is aslo needed for LTM as it links information to existing knowledge, putting an emphasis on its meaning -shows elaborative rehearsal is more important as maintenance as it can lead to LTM without prolonged rehearsal which isn’t explained by the MSM - TST a weakness of the MSM is its emphasis on the amount of rehearsal rather than the type of
53
Which psychologist suggested there were 3 types of long term memory
Tulving (1985)
54
Why did Tulving (1985) propose there were different types of long term memory
Thought the multi store model of memory’s view of LTM was too simplistic
55
What are tge 3 types of long term memory according to Tulving
- episodic - semantic - procedural
56
What does episodic memory refer to
Ability to recall personal events from our lives rooted in emotion
57
Are episodic memories implicit or explicit
Explicit as you have to make a conscious effort to recall them
58
What are 3 factors of episodic memories
1. Time stamped bc you remember when they happened 2. There are several elements intertwined to produce a single memory (eg. People, places) 3. Conscious effort to recall
59
What does semantic memory refer to
Memory store of your knowledge of the world, which is shared by everyone
60
Are semantic memories implicit or explicit
Explicit as we have to consciously try and recall this knowledge
61
Is semantic memory time stamped
No bc we don’t remember when we learnt all knowledge about the world
62
What does procedural memory refer to
Memory of how to do things, skills and actions
63
Are procedural memories implicit or explicit
Implicit as we can recall how to do things without conscious effort and are automatic If you think too much about how to do things it prevents you from acting them out
64
How are procedural memories acquired
Repetition and practise
65
What type of memory is a childhood birthday, a lesson you had last week, what you had for breakfast yesterday
Episodic memory as they are personal life events with emotions attached to them
66
What type of memory is knowing capital cities, facts about animals, names of celebrities
Semantic as it is knowledge of the world shared by everyone
67
What type of memory is knowing how to ride a book, how to write, how to tie shoelaces
Procedural memory as they are unconscious knowledge of how to do things
68
‘neuroimaging’ as positive evaluation for Tulving’s theory of LTM (point)
A strength of Tulving’s proposal is evidence from PET brain scanners show that different types of long term memories are recalled from different parts of the brain
69
Explain how neuroimaging can act as positive evaluation for types LTM (E,K)
- TULVING got participants to perform memory tasks while scanning their brains using a PET scanner > found that recalling SEMANTIC memories used the LEFT prefrontal cortex whereas EPISODIC memories were recalled using the RIGHT prefrontal cortex - indicate that all 3 types of memory use different parts of the brain and are therefore different stores
70
Explain how the case of Clive wearing can act as positive evaluation for the types of long term memory (E,K)
Clive Wearing suffered from long term memory loss due to brain damage as a result of a virus. His procedural memory remained intact (he could play the piano) but he could not retain semantic memories (he did not remember learning to do so) - This supports the different types of LTM as if there was only a single type, he would have had no long term memory
71
Explain why there can be problems with using patients with brain damage as evidence for the types of ltm (eval for positive eval) (E,K)
- case studies are unique experiences and cannot be used as evidence to generalise to the whole population - it is difficult to be certain which areas of the brain are responsive for which behaviours as any have multiple functions ( this is particularly difficult w living patients) > tmt we cannot establish a definite relationship between parts of the brain and types of ltm
72
Explain why a weakness of the types of ltm is ‘the extent to which episodic and semantic memories differ is unclear’ (E,K)
- there is a lot of overlay between the 2 systems as semantic memories often originate as episodic memories. It is unclear whether the gradual transformation of an episodic memory into a semantic memory means a change in system > this suggests that the systems are not total separate but connected with one influencing the other
73
What does the working memory model explain
How short term memory is organised and functions
74
Which psychologists created the working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch (1972)
75
Why was the working memory model created
Baddeley and Hitch thought that stm was a number of different stores
76
What are the 4 main parts of the working memory model
1. central executive 2. Phonological loop 3. Visio-spatial sketch pad 4. Episodic buffer
77
What does the WMM state about dual task performance
Can only be done if both tasks use different memory stores due to interference
78
What is the central executive according to the working memory model
An attentional process that monitors incoming data, allocation tasks to each storage system
79
What is the capacity of the central executive
No capacity meaning it cannot attend to many tasks at once
80
How is the central executive coded
Dependent on imputing information
81
What incoming information does the central executive need to sort
Information arriving from the SR or LTM
82
What does the phonological loop do according to the WMM
Deals with auditory information while preserving the order un which it arrives
83
How is the phonological loop coded
Acoustically
84
What is the capacity of the phonological loop
3-4 items
85
What is the duration of the phonological loop
2 seconds
86
What are the 2 divisions of the phonological loop
1.phonological store 2. articulatory process
87
Explain the research done by Baddeley into the capacity of the phonological loop
The word length effect: Participants were shown a list of 5 single syllable words and 5 multi syllable words and had to recall immediately > participants were more successful in recalling the single syllable words > the capacity of the PL is set by how long it takes to say the words rather than the number of words
88
What did Baddeley find in his ‘word length effect’ about the articulatory process
Participants found it harder to recall multi syllable words > there is a limited space (capacity) for rehearsal in the articulatory process part of the phonological loop
89
What is the function of the phonological store part of the phonological loop
Stores the words you here
90
What is the function of the articulatory process part of the phonological loop
Maintenance rehearsal through the inner voice
91
What is the function of the Visio-spatial sketchpad acording to the WMM
Store for visual / spatial information
92
What is the duration of the Visuo spatial sketchpad
Temporary
93
How is the VSS coded
Visually and spatially
94
What are the 2 subdivisions of the VSS according to Logie (1995)
1. Visual cache 2. Inner scribe
95
What is the function of the visual cache subdivision of the VSS
Stored information about visual items
96
What is the function of the inner scribe subdivision of the VSS
Records the arrangements of objects in the visual field
97
What is the capacity of the VSS
3-4 objects
98
Describe the research of Vogel into the capacity of the VSS
- presented people with a display of between 3 - 12 objects - after 900 milliseconds they were shown another which was either identical or different to the original and participants had to decide if it was the same or not
99
What were the findings of Vogel’s research into the capacity of the VSS
- performance was good up to 4 objects but declined after 4 > suggesting the capacity of the VSS is around 4
100
What is the slave system that was added to the WMM by Baddeley later (2000)
Episodic buffer
101
What is the function of the episodic buffer
Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information processed by other stores, maintains a sense of time sequencing and allows information to move to LTM
102
What is the capacity of the episodic buffer
4 chunks
103
What is the duration of the episodic buffer
Temporary
104
Explain how clinical evidence from patient KF with brain damage can act as positive evaluation for the WMM (EEK)
- Shallice and Warrington studied a patient with amnesia and found his stm was poor when recalling digits read out to him (using PL) but was good when he read it to himself (VSS) - this supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic stores of stm as the WMM suggests
105
Explain how comparison to the msm can act as positive evaluation for the WMM
- more comprehensive, detailed explanation of how stm works, multi component approach > explains how different types of information can both be processed and rehearsed simultaneously > more detailed comprehensive explanation of stm than the msm
106
Explain how WAGER AND SMITH’s findings of brain imaging studies act as positive evaluation for the WMM
- Wager and Smith’s meta-analysis of 60 PET and fMRI studies found that different types of working memory tasks activated specific brain regions: verbal tasks activation left hemisphere regions while spatial tasks activated right hemisphere regions > supporting the idea of separate systems for verbal and visuospatial information
107
Explain why lack of clarity over the central executive can act as negative evaluation for the WMM
- CE is too vague and only seems to allocate resources but isn’t explained how it does so > many feel like the idea of a single CE is wrong and that there are probably multiple components of it and it is more complicated than Baddley and Hitch suggested - is unclear how the CE works and therefore not a comprehensive explanation > decreasing the overall validity of the model
108
Explain how the lack of information about ltm can act as negative evaluation for the WMM
- tells us nothing about how ltm is processed and little about how information is actually transferred from stm to ltm > less informative than the msm
109
What is interference
An explanation of forgetting ltm where two pieces of information conflict with each other, resulting in forgetting one or both, or distorted memory
110
What type of memory does interference effect
Long term memory
111
What are the 2 types of interference
1. Proactive 2. Retroactive
112
What is PROACTIVE interference
When an older memory interferes with a newer one
113
What is RETROACTIVE interference
When a newer memory interferes with an older memory
114
Which psychologist’s study provides evidence for proactive interference
Underwood (1957)
115
Explain the research + findings of underwood’s study into proactive interference
- participants had to learn an increasing number of word lists - found that if they learned more than 10 lists, after 24hrs they only remembered 20%, if they learned 1 list recall was over 70% > when pts learn a series of lists they do not learn lists encountered later as well as those encountered earlier on > the older information disrupts the acquisition of new information
116
Which psychologist’s study provides evidence for retroactive interference
Muller (1900)
117
Explain the research + findings of Muller’s study into retroactive interference
- participants were given a list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes - some where given an intervening task before asked to recall ( describing 3 paintings ) - those given the intervening task performed worse at recall > newer info (paintings) interfered with older info + disrupted recall if older memory
118
How can Baddeley and Hitch’s real life study of rugby players be used as positive evaluation for interference
- rugby players were asked to recall the names of all the teams they have played over the season - some players played all the games and others didn’t, but the time interval from the first to last game was the same for all > found players who played the most games forgot the most teams because they had more information leading to interference
119
Explain how artificial research acts as a weakness for interference as an explanation for forgetting
- lacks external validity > uses artificial stimuli such as word / letter lists which is not the kind of memory used in every day life > research evidence for this theory lacks mundane realism > lower validity
120
Explain how research by DANAHER provides real life application to adverts can be a positive evaluation of interference as an explanation for forgetting (EEK)
- recall and recognition of an advert was impaired when pts were exposed to adverts from two competing brands due to and interfering with the other > suggests that advertising companies should play adverts multiple times a day rather that over the week to maximise effectiveness > shows how the theory of interference can be beneficial for practical real life applications
121
How does retrieval failure explain forgetting
Information is stored in the ltm but cannot be accessed due to a lack of cues (lack of accessibility rather than ability)
122
What are cues
Things that link to memories, serving as reminders allowing material to be remembered
123
What are the 2 types of forgetting according to the retrieval failure theory
Context dependent State dependent
124
What does the encoding specificity principle state
For a cue to help recall it must be both present at encoding (when info is learned) and at retrieval
125
Which psychologists provided research support for the encoding specificity principle
Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)
126
Explain the research of TULVING & PEARLSTONE that lead to the encoding specificity principle
- pts had to learn 48 words belonging to 12 categories and were presented them together (fruit-apple) - free recall (no category given) = 40% recalled, cued recall (cue = category) = 60 % recall > cues coded at the time of learning create meaningful like to help recall
127
What is context dependent forgetting
Recall depends on an external context based cue eg. The Setting / situation information was encoded
128
Which psychologists provide research evidence for context dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley (1975)
129
Explain the research of Godden and Baddeley that provides evidence for context dependent forgetting
- divers had to learn a list of 38 words, 4 conditions: Learn + recall on land, Learn on land recall at sea, Learn + recall underwater, Learn underwater and recall undersea - those who recalled in the same environment they learned the information recalled 50% more words
130
What is state dependent forgetting
Recall depends on the internal cue of one’s mental state
131
Which psychologists provide research evidence for state dependent forgetting
Goodwin et al (1969)
132
Explain the research of Goodwin et al that provides evidence for State dependent forgetting
- male volunteers learned a list of words, 4 conditions: sober at leaking and recall, sober at learning and drunk at recall, drunk at learning and recall, drunk at learning and sober at recall - recall was best when state at recall was same as state at learning
133
Explain how the research support of Darley et al can act as positive evaluation for state dependent forgetting
- found participants who hid money while high on cannabis were more likely to remember where they hid it when they were high again compared to sober > increases scientific credibility by providing reliable, controlled experimental evidence
134
Explain how the research support of Smith can act as positive evaluation for context dependent forgetting
- found research that showed thinking of the same room / environment you did the original learning (mental reinstatement) when recalling info was as effective at improving memory as actually being in the room > shows cues are sufficient to trigger memory retrieval without the need for physical presence of the context - shows RF is supported by multiple studies, increasing reliability
135
Explain why a weakness of the interference theory is it only explains some situations for forgetting
- interference is only explains forgetting when memories are similar > disregards other situations where forgetting occurs such as decay and displacement of memories > incomplete explanation
136
Explain why a limitation of retrieval failure theory is the correlational relationship between encoding cues and retrieval
Nairne (2002) ‘myth of encoding- retrieval match’: - the encoding specificity principle is impossible to test because it is circular > it is impossible to test for an item that hasn’t been encoded in memory - it is impossible to prove that cues are the cause of retrieval, in reality the are just associated w it, limiting the principle’s explanatory power
137
What evidence is there to suggest eye witness testimonies are often unreliable
- Wells (1998 ) studies 40 people who were released by conclusive dna evidence, found more than 90% were wrongly convicted due to inaccurate EWT
138
What are the 2 reasons EWT may not be accurate
Misleading information Anxiety
139
What are the 2 types of misleading information that occur after a witness observes a critical event that can impact EWT
Leading questions Post event discussion
140
What are leading questions
Questions that, either by their form or content, influence a persons schema in order to give a desired answer
141
Who done a key study into the effect of leading questions on the memory of eyewitnesses
Loftus and palmer (1974)
142
Describe the procedure of part 1 of Loftus and Plamer’s study into leading questions
- 45 students shown 7 different films of traffic accidents and given a questionnaire asking questions to describe the events after - 1 critical question > ‘how fast were the cars going when they hit each other’ > 1 group given this Q, other 4 groups the verb hit was replaced with ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’ or ‘contacted’
143
Describe the findings of part 1 of Loftus and Plamer’s study into leading questions
- the participants given the Q with the word ‘contacted’ estimated the slowest mean speed (31.8), then hit, then bumped, then collided, and smashed was the highest (40.8) demonstrates the wording of a question can influence memory recall and external information can alter an individual’s perception of an event
144
Describe the procedure and findings of part 2 of Lofters and Plamer’s study into leading questions
- the participants were questioned again about the accidents a week later > new critical question - ‘did you see any broken glass’ - found participants who had been asked the ‘smashed’ question were most likely to report they had seen glass, even though there was no glass
145
What conclusions can be drawn from Lofters and Plamer’s study into leading Qs
the wording of a question can influence memory recall and external information can alter an individual’s perception of an event
146
How can post even discussion lead effect EWT
Memory conformity: when co witnesses if a crime discuss the event with each other their EWT can become contaminated as individuals remember misinformation from others and combine it with their own memory
147
Which psychologist done an investigation into the effect of post event discussions and the conformity effect on EWT
Gabbert et al (2003)
148
Describe the procedure of Gabbert et al’s research into post event discussions
- 120 pts in pairs to watch a video of a crime, each filmed from a different angle to stimulate different witness perspectives - in each perspective the same sequence of events were shown but from each perspective you could see 2 details the other couldn’t - pairs in condition 1 were asked to discuss the event before each person individually recalled the event they watched, in condition 2 they were asked not to discuss
149
Describe the findings and conclusions that can be drawn from of Gabbert et al’s research into post event discussions
Condition 1: 71% mistakenly recalled aspects of the video that they had not seen themselves but picked up in discussion Condition 2: 0% mistaken recall > post even discussion distorts EW’s memory of events either to win social approval or because they think the other is wright (this is called memory confirmity)
150
Explain why lack of external validity in research is a criticism for the effect of misleading information on EWT
- only using lab experiments for research > artificial stimuli, lacks ecological validity - Yuille and Cutshall (1986 ) interviewed 13 ppl who witnessed an armed robbery, 4 moths later using leading questions > provided accurate recall that matched their initial reports > suggests misleading info may not have the same effect on EWT in real life. In lab experiments pts behaviour changes due to demand characteristics + social desirability bias
151
Explain how individual differences of witnesses can act as a criticism of the effect of misleading information on EWT
Study by Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that ppl aged 18- 45 had more accurate EWT compared to the 55 - 78 aged group > they have difficulty remembering the source of their information, memory is not impaired making them more prone to misleading info > individual differences are important when assessing the reliability of EWT
152
Explain why a strength of research investigating the accuracy of EWT is its real life application to the criminal justice system
- psychological research highlighted to the CJS the problems with EWT > dna exoneration cases have found mistaken eyewitness identification was the largest factor contributing to the conviction of innocent people > this shows the importance of the research into the accuracy of EWT as it can improve how the legal system works
153
Explain the research support that acts as positive evaluation for the notion that misleading info can affect EWT
Research of Braun et al (2002): - college students who had visited Disneyland in the past were asked to evaluate advertising material about Disney containing misleading information about bugs bunny (who is not a Disney character) - 40% of participants who saw bugs bunny in advertising material reported seeing him during their trip to Disneyland which is impossible > shows how powerful misleading information can be in creation inaccurate memories
154
How does anxiety effect the accuracy of EWT
- people become anxious when in stressful situations, this anxiety is accompanied by physiological arousal - anxiety can be shown to both positively and negatively effect EWT accuracy
155
What is the weapon focus effect
When a witness sees an weapon, it makes them anxious and focus all attention on the weapon, making it difficult to remember other details of the event
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Which psychologists done a lab experiment researching the weapon focus effect and its impact on recall accuracy
Johnson and Scott (1976)
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Describe the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s study into the weapon focus effect
Using independent group design participants were asked to sit in a waiting room, overhearing a discussion in a nearby room Condition 1: man came out the room with a pen and grease in his hands Condition 2: man came out the room with a knife covered in blood on his hands Participants asked to identify the man from 50 photographs
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Describe the findings of Johnson and Scott’s study into the weapon focus effect and what conclusions can be drawn from it
Condition 1: (pen) 49% accurate Condition 2: (knife) 33% accurate > anxiety has a negative impact on the accuracy of EWT as a weapon causes anxiety takes focus away from other details of the event
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Describe research support provided by Loftus and Meso (1987) into the weapon focus effect
Monitored the eye movements of eyewitnesses > found the presence of a weapon causes attention to the physically drawn towards the weapon and away from other important details of the event
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Who done a self report study to investigate the positive effects of anxiety on EWT
Christianson and Hubinette (1993)
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Describe the procedure of Christianson and Hubinette’s study into the positive effects of anxiety on EWT
Interview 58 witnesses to real bank robberies 4-15 months after the event The witnesses were either: Victims (high anxiety) or bystanders (low anxiety)
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Describe the findings of Christianson and Hubinette’s study into the positive effects of anxiety on EWT
All witnesses showed good recall (over 75% accurate), victims who were most anxious showed best recall
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What does the Yerkes - Dodson law state about the effect of anxiety on memory
- memory improves with an increase in anxiety arousal up to an optimal point then decreases with further increase
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Explain why high ecological validity is a strength of Christianson and Hubinette’s study into the positive effects on anxiety
- investigated a real life crime scenario, using self report RM rather than a lab study > high external validity as it created real levels of anxiety > however Deffenbacher found from a meta analysis of 34 studies that lab and real life studies overall produce similar results that anxiety decreases memory accuracy > study benefits from real world applicability but findings are inconsistent with other research
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Explain the criticism of the weapon focus effect that it is not necessarily due to anxiety
Pickle (1998): Pts watched a thief enter a hair salon carrying: Scissors ( high threat low suprise ) Handgun (high threat high surprise) Wallet (low threat low suprise) Whole raw chicken ( low threat high surprise) > identification was worse in high surprise conditions rather than high threat > suggests WFE is caused by surprise rather anxiety
166
Explain individual differences as a a criticism of EWT: anxiety studies
- one key extraneous variable in studies of anxiety is emotional sensitivity - Brothwell et al (1987) tested pts on personality characteristics and plot them into 2 groups: neurotic (more emotionally sensitive) and stable > ‘stable’ pts showed rising levels of accuracy as stress levels increased whereas ‘neurotic’ pts showed the opposite results > shows individual difference have the a large impact on the accuracy of EWT
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Explain the research support that can act as positive evaluation for both sides of the argument of the effect of anxiety on accuracy
- Deffenbacher (1983) - reviewed 21 studies > 10 showed results that anxiety increases accuracy, 11 showed anxiety lowered accuracy
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Describe the cognitive interview
- Interviewing technique developed by Geiselman and Fisher (1992) - based on psychological principles concerning effective memory recall in order - to improve the effectiveness of police interviews when questioning witnesses
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What are the 4 components of the cognitive interview
1. Report everything 2. Context reinstatement 3. Reverse the order 4. Change perspective
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Describe and explain the ‘report everything’ aspect of the cognitive interview
- encouraged to report every single detail of the event even those that seem insignificant or irrelevant > trivial details may be important and memories are interconnected so details may act as cues to trigger trigger memory of other details
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Describe and explain the ‘context reinstatement ’ aspect of the cognitive interview
- encouraged to mentally recreate the environment (location, weather) and emotional content of the crime scene > make memories accessible by creating cues
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Describe and explain the ‘reverse the order’ aspect of the cognitive interview
- encouraged to recall events in the reverse order > our recollections are influenced by schemas, by recalling events in a different order it prevents pre existing schemas from influencing recall
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Describe and explain the ‘change perspective’ aspect of the cognitive interview
- recall the event from multiple perspectives by imagining how it would have appeared to other witnesses present at the time > destroy the effect schemas have on recall
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Describe the additional elements added by Fisher et al (1987) that made up the enhanced cognitive interview
Focused on the social dynamic of the interview - for example knowing when to establish eye contact, minimising anxiety, minimising distractions, not interrupting, encouraging witness to speak slowly, and asking open questions
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Describe the real life research support that shows the effectiveness of the cognitive interview as a strength
Fisher et al (1989): Trained police detectives in Florida to use the CI and compared their interview performance before and after > gained 47% more useful info from witnesses compared to standard interviewing techniques - shows the CI is a valuable tool for increasing the accuracy of EWT and its practical use in law enforcement shows its effectiveness
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Explain why research lacking ecological and population al validity is a limitation of the cognitive interview
- most research into the effectiveness of CI are lab experiments, pts often asked to watch a video of a crime then interviewed > artificial environment, lacks ecological validity + cannot be generalised to real life situations + students used as sample > lacks population validity as it doesn’t take into account soften ages w different memory strengt
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Describe the research of Stein and Memon (2006) that uses a more diverse sample which acts as a strength of the cognitive interview
- women from cleaning staff watched video of an abduction then interviewed using standard technique and cognitive > those interviewed using CI provided far superior data rich in detail > study w high population validity unlike most others however still lacked mundane realism as it used articulated stimuli of a video
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Explain the lack if standardisation as a weakness of the cognitive interview
Kebbell and wagstaff (1996) found that different police constabularies use different parts of the CI > many think it is too time consuming and expensive (as training is necessary) to carry out so only use parts > makes it difficult to evaluate as it isn’t applied consistently, reducing reliability and effectiveness