Memory

Question 1

Types of LTM - AO1 - P,S,E

Answer 1

• PROCEDURAL MEMORY = learn motor skills. Memories of learned skills, muscle memory, repetition and practise. Recall CONSCIOUS/DELIBERATE effort. NON-DECLARATIVE + IMPLICIT. Automatic, e.g. riding a bike.
• SEMANTIC MEMORY = knowledge of world shared with everyone. Recall DELIBERATELY., DECLARATIVE+ EXPLICIT. E.G. capital of France.
• EPISODIC MEMORY = personal events, memories, people there, objects, behaviours involved. Recall CONSCIOUSLY W/ EFFORT, DECLARATIVE + EXPLICIT. Memories time stamped (details, context, emotion).

Question 2

Types of LTM - AO1 - S+D

Answer 2

• SIMILARITIES = EM + SM declarative + explicit, EM + SM in prefrontal cortex.
• DIFFERENCES = PM less likely to forget, EM need effort + PM automatic, EM stored w/ time and place.

Question 3

Types of LTM - AO3 - strength - research support

Answer 3

• CLIVER WEARING + HM selective memory loss. Both EM impaired, hard to recall events from past but PM in tact - CLIVE could still play piano.
• SM unaffected.
• HM couldn’t recall stroking a dog half an hour before and having a dog but knows what a dog is.

Question 4

Types of LTM - AO3 - weakness - issue with clinical evidence

Answer 4

• lack of control variables in case studies, don’t know what memory was like before accident.
• case studies can’t be generalised as everyone is different.

Question 5

Types of LTM - AO3 - strength - real life app

Answer 5

• BELLEVILLE demonstrated EM can be improved in older people who had mild cognitive impairment.
• Ppt perform better on test of EM when trained in control group.
• shows benefit of finding types of LTM.

Question 6

Types of LTM - AO3 -

Question 7

Types of LTM - AO3 - weakness - issue w/ clinical evidence

Answer 7

• lack of control variables in case studies
• dont know what memory was like before the accident, could already be bad
• trauma may have affected it
• case studies can’t generalise to target pop as its one persons experience, everyone complex

Question 8

Types of LTM - AO3 - strength - real life app

Answer 8

• BELLEVILLE demonstrate EM can be improved in older people who had mild cognitive impairment.
• Ppt perform better on tests of EM when trained compared to control group.
• show benefit of finding types of LTM.

Question 9

Types of LTM - AO3 - strength - neuroimaging

Answer 9

• TULVING had pts perform various memory tasks while brains scanned using PET scan.
• FOUND = EM (right) + SM (left) in prefrontal cortex and PM in basil ganglia.
• show diff areas of LTM.

Question 10

Forgetting - Retrival Failure - AO1 - TULVING

Answer 10

• encoding specificity principle = if cue helps us recall info, it has to be present at encoding and retrieval.
• less likely to forget.
• 2 types = EXTERNAL - context dependent. INTERNAL - state dependent.

Question 11

Forgetting - Retrieval Failure - AO1 - CARTER + CASSADAY

Answer 11

• INTERNAL (state)
• learn something when in a happy/sad/drunk state, we remember in the same mental state.
• Anti-histamines has light sedative effect making people drowsy.
• creates a INTERNAL PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE different to normal.
• learn list of words + recall in 4 conditions.
• G1 = learn on drug, recall on
• G2 = learn on drug, recall off
• G3 = learn off, recall on
• G4 = learn off, recall off
• G2+3 worst recall

Question 12

Forgetting - Retrieval Failure - AO1 - GODDEN + BADDELEY

Answer 12

• EXTERNAL (context)
• deep sea divers underwater.
• divers learn list of words on land/water and recall land/water.
• G1 = learn land, recall land
• G2 = learn land, recall water
• G3 = learn water, recall land
• G4 = learn water, recall water
• FOUND = recall was 40% owner in G2+3

Question 13

Forgetting - Retrieval Failure - AO3 - weakness - psych critics

Answer 13

• BADDELEY say if the context isn’t extremely diff there isn’t an effect.
• hard to find an environment more extreme then land and water.
• but 2 classrooms are very similar, allow retrieval failure maybe.

Question 14

Forgetting - Retrival Failure - AO3 - strength - research support

Answer 14

• ABERNETHY field experiment of a group of students.
• tested on whether context of the room and teacher accounts for forgetting.
• tested weekly in the room where they learned w/ same instructor they learnt.
• or in diff room w/ same instructor.
• or same room w/ diff instructor
• or diff room w/ diff instructor.
• same room and same teacher scores was better.

Question 15

Forgetting - Retrieval Failure - AO3 - strength - improvement of recall

Answer 15

• ABERETHY showed in last study you should revise in the same rooms where you take exam.
• this is unrealistic BUT we can use imagination.
• SMITH showed that mental reinstatement was just as effective.
• cognitive interview shows that retrieval is used to imagine an event.

Question 16

Forgetting - retrieval failure - AO3 - weakness - recognition tested instead

Answer 16

• GODDEN + BADDELEY replicated their study of underwater experiment but used recognition test instead of recall.
• pts had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from a list, instead retrieving it themselves.
• FOUND = no context-dependent effect and performance was same in al 4 conditions.
• limitation as means that presence or absence of cues only affects one type of memory being tested.

Question 17

Forgetting - interference - AO1

Answer 17

• PROACTIVCE = past events interfere with new events
• RETROACTIVE = recent events interfere with old events
• interference strongest when material is similar
• interference main explanation for LTM forgetting

Question 18

Forgetting - interference - AO1 - U+P

Answer 18

• pts asked word pairs to learn
• so when presented with 1st word could they recall the 2nd word
• given another list, same 1st word but diff 2nd word
• showed pro + retro exists

Question 19

Forgetting - interference - AO3 - strength - BADDELEY + HITCH

Answer 19

• asked rugby played to try and remember names of teams they’ve played so far, week by week.
• most players had missed some games so SOME players ‘last team’ they played was 2 weeks ago or 3.
• FOUND = accurate recall didn’t depend on how long ago matches happened, but the number of games they played since.
• player who last played 3 weeks ago recall was better if played no matches since.

Question 20

Forgetting - interference - AO3 - weakness - artificial materials

Answer 20

• greater interference shown in lab studies hen real life.
• stimulus used in labs are word lists.
• different to things we learn and try to remember in everyday lives like peoples face, birthdays.
• interferences more likely to happen in a lab then real life.

Question 21

Forgettting - interference - AO3 - strength - MCGEOCH + MCDONALD

Answer 21

• study retro by changing similarity between 2 sets of words.
• learn list of 10 words till 100% remember them then learn new word list.
• 6 groups:
• G1 = synonyms - words with same meanings as originals
• G2 = antonyms - words with opposite meanings as originals
• G3 = words unrelated to the originals
• G4 = consonant syllables (TVK)
• G5 = 3 digit numbers
• G6 = no new list - ppts rested
• G1 worst recall as most similar, 1.4 mean words recall
• G5 best, 3.5 mean numbers recalled

Question 22

Forgetting - interference - AO3 - strength - evidence from lab studies

Answer 22

• Lab experiments like MCGEOCH study
• most studies show that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways we forget info from LTM.
• strength as labs control effects of irrelevant influences and give confidence that interference is a valid explanation for some forgetting

Question 23

EWT - anxiety - AO1 - J+S

Answer 23

• investigating weapon focus effect on EWT accuracy
  -ppt take part in fake psychological study and waiting in waiting room but that’s where real experiment happens
• G1 overhear argument in next room, crash heard + men emerge w/ letter opener w/ blood on it
• G2 overhear disagreement in next room, man emerges holding pen w/ grease on it
• ppt asked to identify man from 50 photos
• FOUND = G1 high anxiety, less accurate 33%
• G2 = 49% accuracy

Question 24

EWT - anxiety - AO3 - weakness - C+H

Answer 24

• CHRISTIANSON + HUBINETTE
• 58 witnesses to bank robbery in Sweden
• interviews conducted 4-15 months later to
• all victims showed good memory 75% accuracy
• high accuracy w/ high anxiety.
• and asked 2 leading questions

Question 25

EWT - anxiety - AO1 - Y+D law

Answer 25

- low anxiety = low performance - high anxiety = low performance - medium PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL IS OPTIMAL LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE - draw graph

Question 26

EWT - anxiety - AO3 - weakness + strength - ethical issues

Answer 26

- deceived ppts by saying experiment something when its not, put under severe stress. - could lead to psych harm - ppts may not want to be exposed to knife as could be triggering but had no choice. - HOWEVER, ppts were debriefed after and gave after care if psych harm was induced. - did it so no DC

Question 27

EWT - anxiety - AO3 - weakness - individual diffs

Answer 27

- BOTHWELL ET AL study w/ ppts tested personality characteristics and labelled them either ‘neruotic’ (anxious) or ‘stable’ (less emotionally sensitive). - FOUND = stable ppts showed rising ;level of accuracy of stress increased but neurotics accuracy decreased.

Question 28

EWT - anxiety - AO3 - weakness - PICKEL

Answer 28

- experiment at hairdressers to test surprise not anxiety. - person came in with either; scissors (high threat, low surprise) - hand gun (high threat, high surprise) - wallet (low threat, low surprise) - whole chicken (low threat, high surprise) - EW accuracy poorer in higher surprise situation, chicken and gun.

Question 29

EWT - misleading info - AO1 - L+P leading q’s

Answer 29

- EXPERIMENT 1: - 45 ppts, 5 groups of 9 - each group watch film lasting 5-30secs of car accidents and gave questions about it - offer a questionnaire - leading q = ‘how fast were cars going when they … each other’ - each group had different verb = ‘HIT, CONTACTED, BUMPED, COLLIDED, SMASHED’ - FOUND = ‘smashed’ had mean speed of 40.5 - ‘hit’ had 34 - ‘contacted’ had 31.8 - EXPERIMET 2: - 150 groups, 3 groups of 50 - after watch film, asked questionnaire on speed. - 50 asked ‘hit’ or ‘smashed’ - 1 week later, ppt return to say whether they saw broken glass or not (wasn’t any) - ‘HIT’ 43 said no - ‘SMASHED’ said 34 no - 9 had say to ‘SMASHED’ then ‘HIT’

Question 30

EWT - misleading info - AO1 - G post event

Answer 30

- GABBERT - ppts study in pairs with film of same crime but diff POV - both discuss after then complete test of recall - 71% say was guilty (when wasn’t) - witness go along for social approval or believe they are wrong = PHENOMENON MEMORY CONFORMITY

Question 31

EWT - misleading info - AO3 - strength - research support

Answer 31

- BRAUN ET AL study with college students who went to Disney as children - asked to evaluate ads w/ misleading info of BUGS BUNNY (not in Disney) + ARIEL (not introduced yet) - split into 2 groups to see what most likely to report they shook hands with them - heavily influenced they created fake memories

Question 32

EWT - misleading info - AO3 - strength - useful in real life apps

Answer 32

- important where consequences of inaccurate EWT can be serious - LOFTUS believ that leading qs can have distorting effect on memory that police need to be careful about how they phrase questions when interviewing eyewitness - psychs can make a positive difference to lives of real people, like improving the legal system by appearing the changes to court trials.

Question 33

EWT - misleading info - AO3 - weakness - individual diffs

Answer 33

- evidence that older people less accurate than younger when EWT - ANASTASIA + RHODES found that people in 18-25 and 35-45 more accurate then people 55-78 - HOWEVER, all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of own age = own age bias - research studies use younger people this may mean that some age groups appear less accurate when not true

Question 34

EWT - misleading info - AO3 - weakness - DC

Answer 34

- ZARAGOSA + MCCLOSKEY argue that answers ppts give in lab studies are result of DC - ppts dont want to let research down and appear helpful - so if asked question they dont know answer to they guess - weakness to studies

Question 35

Cognitive interview - AO1 - F+G

Answer 35

- FISHER + GEISELMANN - MENTAL REINSTATEMENT = triggers recall of info. Interviewer encourages ppt to mentally recreate physical and psychological environment of incident. Make emotional cues get retrieved - REPORT EVERYTHING = triggers recall of additional info. Report every detail w/o editing anything. Memories are interconnected so recollection of item may cue the next or 1 detail from 1 ppt link to others details - CHANGE ORDER = disrupt existing schemas. Try recall events alternative ways. Recollection influenced by schemas, recalling events back to front prevent schemas - CHANGE POV = disrupt schemas. Interviewee asked recall incident from multiple POV = PICHERT

Question 36

Cognitive interview - AO1

Answer 36

- CI = police technique for interviewing witnesses to crime, encouraging them to recreate context to increase stored info - ENHANCED CI = FISHER. Developed additional elements of CI to focus on social dynamics. - E.G. interviewer needs to know when to make eye contact. - ECI reduce anxiety, help relax, ask open qs.

Question 37

Cognitive interview - AO3 - strength - research support

Answer 37

- meta analysis study of 50 studies found increase of 34% in amount of correct info in CI compared to standard = KOHNKEN ET AL - HOWEVER effectiveness due to individual diffs, not CI. - MILNE + BULL found when ppts interviewed w/ REPORT EVERYTHING + MENTAL REINSTATEMENT recall was higher than using 1 individual component

Question 38

Cognitive interview - AO3 - weakness - time + training

Answer 38

- police reluctant to use CI as takes so much time compared to standard police interview - E.G. more time needed to establish rapport with witness which allow to relax - CI also requires special training and many forces haven’t been able to provide more than a few hours of training = KEBBELL + WAGSTAFF - unlikely that CI is actually used

Question 39

Cognitive interview - AO3 - weakness - increase in inaccurate info

Answer 39

- techniques of CI aim to increase amount of correct info remembered but recall of incorrect info also increased. - KOHNKEN ET AL found an 81% increase of correct info but also 61% increase of incorrect info when ECI compared to standard interview.