Memory Flashcards

(142 cards)

1
Q

What did Baddeley investigate?

A

Coding of STM and LTM

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2
Q

What were the categories for the four lists of words that Baddeley used?

A

Four lists of four short words:
-Phonetically similar
-Phonetically dissimilar
-Semantically similar
-Semantically dissimilar

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3
Q

Baddeley investigation method? [2 different]

A

-Asked people to immediately recall the list of words
-Asked to recall 20 mins after learning

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4
Q

What did Baddeley find?

A

People did worse with acoustically similar words (when recall was immediate)

People did worse with semantically similar words (when recalled after 20 mins)

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5
Q

What did Baddeley conclude?

A

Information is coded differently depending on the memory store:

Coding in stm is acoustic.
Coding in ltm is semantic.

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6
Q

What did Jacobs investigate?

A

Capacity of stm
-Digital span

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7
Q

Jacobs method of investigation?

A

-Lists of 6 numbers, increasing in length
-Read aloud and asked pps to recall immediately the lists of letters
-If correct, pps would move onto longer lists until incorrect- this was recorded as pps’ digital span.

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8
Q

Jacobs findings?

A

Mean span for letters=7.3
Mean span for digits=9.3

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9
Q

Jacobs conclusion?

A

our stm has a maximum capacity

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10
Q

What did Miller investigate?

A

Capacity of stm

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11
Q

Miller method of investigation?

A

observations rather than actual study:
Noticed-
- 7 days, 7 musical scales, 7 deadly sins

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12
Q

Miller’s conclusions?

A

People can recall words as well as letters
If we chunk information into groups, it is more easily remembered

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13
Q

What were Peterson & Peterson investigating?

A

Duration of ltm

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14
Q

Peterson & Peterson method:

A

24 pps & list of 3 letters
Showed consonant syllable trigrams and then asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal (distraction task). Varied length of time 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18. Asked to then recall the consonant syllable.

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15
Q

Peterson & Peterson findings?

A

After 3 seconds, 80% accurate.
18 seconds= 3% accurate. Dropped after 18 seconds

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16
Q

Peterson & Peterson conclusions?

A

Without verbal rehearsal we have a very short duration in our STM

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17
Q

What did Bahrick et al investigate?

A

Duration of ltm

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18
Q

Bahrick et al method of investigation?

A

-Yearbooks of participants obtained from schools
-392 American pps between 17 and 74 years old.
-Participants asked to recall members of their graduating class.

Variation-used photographs as prompts

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19
Q

Bahrick et al findings?

A

After 15 year, able to remember 60%
After 48 years, dropped to 30%

When using photos, recalled 90% after 15 years

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20
Q

Bahrick et al conclusions?

A

Our LTM has an incredible duration, maybe even up to a lifetime.

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21
Q

Baddeley strengths [2]

A

-Led to Multi-storage model of memory
-Identifies clear differences between two memory stores

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22
Q

Baddeley weaknesses [2]

A

-Artificial stimuli
-Poor external validity- cannot generalise to all memory

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23
Q

Jacobs strength

A

Widely replicated and supported so valid

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24
Q

Jacobs weaknesses [2]

A

Old therefore confounding variables
E.g distractions

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25
Bahrick strength
High external validity- meaningful stimuli- people we know
26
Miller weaknesses [2]
-Didn't follow up with any actual research -Other studies (eg Cowan) found more likely to be 4+ or -1 (3-5)
27
Peterson & Peterson weakness
Triagrams were meaningless & artificial stimuli
28
MSM- who created the MSM of memory?
Atkinson + Shiffrin
29
Semantically similar meaning?
They mean the same thing
30
MSM- what are the three stores, as proposed by the multi-store model of memory?
-Sensory register -Short-term memory -Long-term memory
31
MSM- Three examples of types of sensory registers and what they store?
- Iconic= visual - Echoic= auditory/sound - Haptic= touch
32
MSM- Duration of the sensory register?
Less than half a second
33
MSM- Capacity of the sensory register? [high or low?]
High (e.g up to 100 million cells in one eye)
34
MSM- Key process linked to the sensory register?
Attention
35
MSM- What is the coding in the sensory register dependant on?
Modality-specific =Depends on sense
36
MSM- How is the STM mainly coded?
Acoustically
37
MSM- Duration of the STM?
18 seconds (unless rehearsed)
38
MSM- Capacity of the STM?
Limited
39
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Repeating material over & over, therefore allowing info to be kept in the stm longer, then pass into the ltm
40
MSM- How is info passed from the stm into the ltm?
Prolonged rehearsal
41
MSM- How is the ltm mainly coded?
Semantically
42
MSM- What is the duration of the ltm?
Up to a lifetime (Bahrick et al)
43
MSM- How is info moved from the ltm back into the stm?
Retrieval
44
MSM- Why might info be forgotten whilst in the sensory register?
No memory is made
45
MSM- Why might info be forgotten whilst in the stm?
Decay
46
MSM- Why might info be forgotten whilst in the ltm?
Interference, retrieval failure
47
Research support/strength for the MSM?
Baddeley - We mix up similar sounding words in stm - We mix up similar meanings using the ltm - Supports that the stm+ltm are separate
48
Counterpoint to the research support for the MSM.
- Everyday life, memories are related to useful things (names, faces) - Many studies use meaningless stimuli (letters, digits) - May not be a valid model of everyday life
49
Weakness of MSM- Shallice & Warnington
Proposed idea of more than one memory store - Studied 'KF'- had amnesia - STM for digits was poor when read aloud - Recall better when digits read to self - Could be other stm store for non-verbal sounds - Suggests MSM is wrong in claiming only one stm store
50
Weakness of MSM- Craik & Watkins
Suggested that prolonged rehearsal is not needed - Type of rehearsal is more important than amount (elaborative rehearsal/processing)- e.g linking it to existing knowledge
51
MSM- Clinical case study- HM
Due to seizures, had hippocampus removed - Could still create STM- did well on tests of immediate memory span - Could not turn these into LTM- couldn't turn these into LTM
52
Who proposed the three types of LTM?
Tulving
53
What did Tulving realise?
The MSM's ltm was too simplistic and inflexible
54
According to Tulving, what were the three types of ltm?
- Episodic memory - Semantic memory - Procedural memory
55
LTM- which type of memory is described as being 'like a diary'?
Episodic
56
LTM- which type of memory is described as being 'like a dictionary'?
Semantic
57
LTM- what do you recall using your episodic memory? Give examples
Life events e.g people, places, objects, etc
58
LTM- Is the episodic memory time-stamped?
Yes
59
LTM- Is conscious effort required to recall using the episodic memory?
Yes
60
LMT- what do you recall using your semantic memory? Give examples
Constantly added to shared knowledge of the world and well-known concepts and facts. E.g tastes, word meanings, concepts (like love, animals like schema))
61
LTM- is the semantic memory time-stamped?
No
62
LTM- is conscious effort required to recall from the semantic memory?
Yes
63
LTM- what do you recall using the procedural memory? Give examples
Actions, skills & how to do things which become automatic through practise and are harder to explain E.g Riding a bike, playing an instrument, driving
64
LTM- is the procedural memory time-stamped?
No
65
LTM- is conscious effort required to recall from the procedural memory?
No
66
LTM- Similarity between procedural and episodic memory?
Both are personal to the specific person
67
LTM- Similarity between procedural and semantic memory?
Not time-stamped
68
LTM- Similarity between episodic and semantic memory?
Both require conscious retrieval
69
LTM- Clinical evidence (HM)
Molaison & Wearing -Due to seizures, HM had hippocampus removed -Semantic memory mainly unaffected- still understood word meanings -Procedural memory also intact- walking, speaking
70
LTM- Clinical evidence- Wearing
Brain damage Wearing was a professional musicion- still able to read music (Procedural memory)
71
LTM- Real world application- strength
-Memory loss that comes with age linked to episodic- memories and personal experiences -Belleville et al- devised intervention to improve episodic memory in elderly
72
LTM- Hodges & Patterson
Some people with Alzheimer's disease could form new episodic memories but not semantic
73
LTM- counterpoint to the clinical studies
Lacked control variables- brain injuries unexpected & no knowledge of memories before the injury (difficult to judge change)
74
LTM- Buckner & Peterson (weakness)
Conflicting neuroimaging evidence - Reviewed evidence of location of semantic + episodic memory Semantic= left prefrontal cortex Episodic= right prefrontal cortex
75
LTM- Tulving (weakness)
Episodic= specialised subcategory of semantic - People with amnesia have functioning semantic and damaged episodic, but not possible to have functioning episodic with damaged semantic
76
EFF- INT: What is interference?
When two pieces of information disrupt each other, causing forgetting of one/both or distortion
77
EFF- INT: What does interference mainly explain forgetting for?
LTM
78
EFF- INT: Two types of interference
Proactive Retroactive
79
EFF: what is proactive interference?
An older memory interferes with a newer one
80
EFF: what is retroactive interference?
A newer memory interferes with an older one
81
EFF: Who completed research on retroactive interference?
McGeoch and McDonald
82
EFF: Method- McGeoch and Mcdonald
Pps learnt set of 10 words, then learnt new list, six different categories
83
EFF: McGeoch and McDonald- six different categories
- Synonyms - Antonyms - Unrelated - Consonant syllables - 3-digit number - No list (rested)= control
84
EFF: McGeoch and McDonald- findings and conclusions
Synonyms produced worst recall Shows interference is stronger when memories are similar
85
EFF: real world evidence (strength)
Baddeley and Hitch - Asked rugby players to recall names of teams previously played Players who'd played more games had poorest recall (most interference)
86
EFF: Artificial- Weakness
McGeoch and McDonald used unrealistic material and procedure
87
EFF: Interference and cues - weakness
Interference can be overcome using cues Tulving and Psotka- pps given list of words organised into categories. 70% recall 1st, but got worse with additional lists At end, given cues of category names and recall rose again to 70%. Material still in ltm, only temporary loss
88
EFF: support from drug studies- strength
Coenen and Van Luijellar- pps given list of words and letters and asked to recall. When on drug 'diazepam', recollection 1 week later poor compared to control. When learnt before drug was taken, recall was better later than placebo. Drug improved recall by preventing new info being processed
89
EFF: RF- What is the encoding speciality principle?
If a cue is going to be helpful, it must be: - Present at encoding - Present at retrieval
90
EFF: RF- who proposed the encoding speciality principle?
Tulving
91
EFF: RF- Two types of retrieval failure forgetting
- Context-dependent - State-dependent
92
EFF: RF- Who completed research on context-dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley
93
EFF: RF: C-D- Godden and Baddeley procedure
Studied deep-sea divers. Divers learnt list of words either on land or underwater and asked to recall in opposite of same state (four groups)
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EFF: RF: C-D- Godden and Baddeley findings and conclusions
Accurate recall 40% lower in non-matching conditions
95
EFF: RF- who completed research on state-dependent forgetting?
Carter and Cassaday
96
EFF: RF- S-D- Carter and Cassaday procedure
Gave antihistamine drugs to pps
97
EFF: RF- S-D- Carter and Cassaday findings
Mismatched internal states led to worse performance
98
EFF: RF- Real world application (strength)
Helps overcome forgetting in everyday situations
99
EFF: RF- research support (strength)
G&B and C&C- lack of relevant cues at recall can lead to forgetting
100
EFF: RF- Baddeley counterpoint (weakness)
Context effects not strong enough in everyday life- hard to find environments as different as underwater and on land
101
EFF: RF- Recall vs recognition (weakness)
Depends on type of memory being tested- G&B replicated underwater experiment using recognition instead- performance same in all 4 therefore only applies to recall rather than recognition
102
EWT: MI- Who completed research on leading question?
Loftus and Palmer
103
EWT: MI- Loftus and Palmer- procedure
45 pps watched clip of car accident. Leading q asked and different critical verbs used (hit, contacted, bumped, smashed, collided)
104
EWT:MI- Loftus and Palmer- findings
'Contacted'= mean est speed= 31.8 mph 'Smashed'= mean est speed= 40.5 mph
105
EWT: MI- Two explanations as to why leading questions affect EWT?
Response-bias explanation Substitution explanation
106
EWT: MI- LQs- What is the response bias explanation?
Wording does not affect memory, but influences participants' decision on how to answer
107
EWT: MI- LQs- What is the substitution explanation? what evidence is there for this in Loftus and Palmer's experiment?
Wording changes memory of clip L&P repeated experiment- Pps who heard 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass than pps who heard 'hit'
108
EWT: MI- Who completed research on post-event discussion?
Gabbert et al
109
EWT: MI- Gabbert et al procedure
Pps shown videa of same crime, two different Povs. Pps discussed in pairs and recall was tested
110
EWT: MI- Gabbert et al findings
71% of pps mistakenly recalled aspects they didn't see, but heard about when discussing.
111
EWT: MI- Two explanations for why PED affects EWT
Memory contamination Memory conformity
112
EWT: MI- what is memory contamination?
When discussing, EWT is altered as they combine (mis) info from others with own memory
113
EWT: MI- what is memory conformity?
Witnesses go along with eachother, either to win social approval or because they believe they are wrong and the others are right, their actual memory is unchanged
114
EWT: MI- real world application (strength)
Helps to improve legal systems, psychologists often asked to attend EWT trials and explain limitations to juries
115
EWT: MI- counterpoint (weakness)
Lab clips may be different to real life events (more stressful) and less motivation to be accurate due to a lack of consequences
116
EWT: MI- evidence against substitution explanation (weakness)
Sutherland and Hayne- showed pps clip- recall better for central details with leading qs than peripheral
117
EWT: MI- evidence against memory conformity (weakness)
Skagerberg and Wright- hair colour different in 2 clips, PED, gave answers like 'medium brown'- memory itself affected by contamination not conformity
118
EWT: MI- demand characteristics (weakness)
Zaragoza and McCloskey- many answers given in lab studies are due to DC- pps want to be helpful and often guess answers desired by psychologists
119
EWT: A- Why might anxiety have a negative impact on recall?
Creates physiological arousal in body- prevents paying attention to cues
120
EWT: A- Why might anxiety have a positive impact on recall?
Fight or flight triggered, causing higher 'alertness'
121
EWT: Who provided evidence that anxiety has a negative effect on recall?
Johnson and Scott
122
EWT: Who provided evidence that anxiety has a positive effect on recall?
Yuille and Cutshall
123
EWT: A- Johnson and Scott procedure
Pps in waiting room Two conditions: Low anxiety- pps heard convo next door, saw man walk out holding a pen with greasy hands High anxiety- pps heard heated convo and glass breaking, saw man walk out holding bloody knife Pps picked man from 50 photos
124
EWT: A- Johnson and Scott findings
Low anxiety= 49% accurate High anxiety= 33% correctly identified
125
EWT: A- Two explanations as to why anxiety has a negative effect on recall
-The Tunnel Theory - Weapon focus
126
EWT: A- What is The Tunnel Theory?
Argues people have higher memory for central events
127
EWT: A- Yuille and Cutshall procedure
Took 13/21 witnesses of real shooting in Vancouver, Canada Interviewed 4-5 months later Asked to rate stress level and emotional problems since
128
EWT: A- Yuille and Cutshall findings
Pps who reported more stress were more accurate (88%) compared to less stressed (75%)
129
EWT: A- Who explained the contradictory findings using the 'Inverted U'?
Yerkes and Dodson
130
EWT: A- Johnson and Scott research support (strength)
Valentine and Mesout- used heart rate to divide people into high and low anxiety groups Anxiety disrupted pps abilities to recall details about actor in a labyrinth
131
EWT: A- Johnson and Scott counterpoint (weakness)
May not have been testing for anxiety- focused on weapon out of surprise not fear? Pickel- used different objects (raw chicken, gun, scissors) in hairdressing salon vid. EWT less accurate in more unusual conditions Weapon focus not due to anxiety?
132
EWT: A- Yuille and Cutshall support (strength)
Christianson and Hubinette- 58 pps interviewed from actual Sweden bank robberies. Assumed more directly involved more anxious- recall 75% more accurate
133
EWT: A- Yuille and Cutshall validity problems (weakness)
Interviewed pps months after- no control over events in between- confounding variables
134
EWT: A- Inverted U theory counterpoint (weakness)
Ignores fact that anxiety has many elements- cognitive, behavioural, physical etc Too simplistic?
135
EWT: CI- Who came up with the idea of the Cognitive interview?
Fisher and Geiselman
136
EWT: CI- What four things make up a cognitive interview?
Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order Change perspective
137
EWT: CI- Who enhanced the cognitive interview and how?
Fisher et al- added social dynamics e.g eye contact, speaking slowly, open-ended qs
138
EWT: CI- Effective (strength)
Meta-analysis- Kohnken et al- 55 studies comparing Ci with normal police interviewed - 41% more accurate only 4 studies showed no difference
139
EWT: CI- contrasting research (weakness)
Kohnken et al- more inaccurate info recalled during meta- analysis
140
EWT: CI- usefulness (weakness)
Milne and Bull- each of 4 techniques used alone produced more info than standard. Some combos more useful
141
EWT: CI- time consuming (weakness)
Takes time to train officers
142
Define the visuo-spatial sketchpad
A component of the working memory model which has a limited capacity of 3-4 objects