Memory

Question 1

What is the multi-store memory model

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the Multi-Store Model in 1968. It regards memory as a series of stores through which information passes linearly (one-way) through a fixed sequence i.e. each store acts as a gateway to the next. Incoming information from the senses is placed briefly in the sensory register. If attention is paid, information travels from the SR into STM. The longer an item is held in STM, the better chance it has of being encoded to LTM, however things tend to be rapidly forgotten from STM within a few seconds due to decay (will learn about this more later).

Question 2

Describe the sensory register

Answer 2

The sensory register stores a very brief memory (< 1 second) of unprocessed and unfiltered “raw” information from the five senses. This sensory register thus gives rough information
about shape, size, colour and location. This was studied by Sperling (1960). When attention is paid to something in the environment it is then converted to short-term memory.
Information deemed unimportant decays or disappears.

Question 3

Describe the short-term memory

Answer 3

STM is limited in both duration and capacity, typically holding information for around 18–30 seconds (Peterson and Petersons) trigram experiment and storing about 7±2 items (Miller, 1956), unless rehearsal strategies are used. It encodes information acoustically (By sound)

Question 4

Describe the long-term memory

Answer 4

It is important to realise that long-term memory is not a passive store of information, but a dynamic system that constantly revises and modifies stored information in the light of new information. It holds vast quantities of information which can be stored for long periods of time. Long-term memory is much larger and more complex than short-term memory.

Question 5

Description of Glanzer & Cunitz study

Answer 5

Aim: To investigate the serial position effect and provide evidence for separate memory stores (STM and LTM) within the multi-store model of memory (MSM).

Method: Lab experiment. Participants were asked to recall lists of words. Some had no delay before recall, while others had a 30-second distractor task before recalling the words.

Findings:

Without delay: Primacy and recency effects occurred.

With delay: Recency effect disappeared, but the primacy effect remained.

Conclusion: Recency effect depends on STM, while primacy effect reflects LTM encoding.

Question 6

Link Glazner & Cunitz

Answer 6

Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968):

Glanzer & Cunitz’s findings support the idea of separate STM and LTM stores, a key claim in MSM.

Question 7

Implications of Glanzer & Cunitz

Answer 7

Suggests that positioning of information (start/end) can influence learning and revision strategies

Question 8

Comparison of Glanzer & Cunitz

Answer 8

Compared to Peterson & Peterson (1959):

Both show that short-term memory decays quickly without rehearsal.

Peterson & Peterson used nonsense trigrams, while Glanzer & Cunitz used word lists – both show STM’s fragility.

Question 9

Evaluation of Glanzer & Cunitz

Answer 9

✅ Strengths:

High internal validity due to controlled lab setting.

Clear support for MSM.

Reliable and replicable findings.

❌ Limitations:

Lacks ecological validity (word lists are artificial).

Doesn’t explain how memories transfer from STM to LTM.

May not reflect everyday memory use.

Question 10

Summary of multi-store memory model

Answer 10

Proposed by: Atkinson & Shiffrin in 1968.

Structure: Memory is made up of three separate stores:

Sensory Memory – receives raw input from senses; duration is less than 2 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM) – limited capacity (7±2 items), short duration (around 18–30 seconds).

Long-Term Memory (LTM) – potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

Information Flow:

Input → Sensory memory → (Attention) → STM → (Rehearsal) → LTM

Retrieval goes from LTM back to STM.

The model is linear and structured, suggesting information must pass through each stage.

Question 11

Links of msm

Answer 11

Strongly supported by Glanzer & Cunitz (1966):

Recency effect (STM) and primacy effect (LTM) support the idea of separate stores.

Peterson & Peterson (1959):

Demonstrated that STM has a limited duration (~20 seconds without rehearsal).

HM case study:

Could not form new LTM after surgery but had intact STM – shows distinct memory stores.

Question 12

Implications of msm

Answer 12

Highlights the importance of rehearsal to transfer information into long-term memory.

Question 13

Comparisons to msm

Answer 13

Compared to Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974):

MSM is simpler and more linear, whereas the WMM breaks down STM into components (e.g., phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad).

WMM explains dual-task performance, MSM does not.

Question 14

Evaluation of msm

Answer 14

✅ Strengths:

Supported by lab experiments (e.g., Glanzer & Cunitz).

Clear and easy-to-understand model.

Inspired decades of memory research.

Supported by neurological case studies (e.g., HM, Clive Wearing).

❌ Weaknesses:

Too simplistic – treats STM and LTM as unitary stores, when evidence suggests they are more complex.

Doesn’t explain why some information is remembered without rehearsal (e.g., emotional memories).

Ignores factors like meaning, motivation, or depth of processing.

Question 15

What is the wmm

Answer 15

The Working Memory Model is an explanation of short-term memory (STM) that sees it as an active system, not just a passive store like in the Multi-Store Model. It focuses on how we manipulate and temporarily hold information while doing tasks like problem-solving, reading, or mental maths.

Instead of one single store, STM is broken into multiple components that work together.

Question 16

What is the phonological loop

Answer 16

Phonological Loop (PL) – Sound-based information
Deals with auditory information (e.g., spoken words).

Two parts:

Phonological store: inner ear – holds words we hear.

Articulatory control system: inner voice – allows rehearsal (repeating info to keep it in STM).

Question 17

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 17

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSS) – Visual + spatial information
Deals with images, shapes, and spatial layout (e.g., remembering directions or a diagram).

Helps us “see” things in our mind’s eye.

Split into:

Visual cache: stores visual data.

Inner scribe: deals with spatial/movement info.

Question 18

What is the central executive?

Answer 18

Central Executive (CE) – The boss of working memory
Directs attention and controls the other parts (PL & VSS).

Allocates resources to tasks.

Has a limited capacity and doesn’t store information itself.

Question 19

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 19

Episodic Buffer (added in 2000 by Baddeley)
Integrates information from the PL, VSS, and LTM into one “episode” or combined experience.

Has a limited capacity.

Helps form a full mental representation (e.g., remembering a full scene from a movie).

Question 20

Summary of wmm

Answer 20

The Working Memory Model was developed in the 1970s by Baddeley and Hitch, based on research into how short-term memory works in everyday tasks, rather than artificial memory tests. It moved away from the idea of a single short-term memory store and instead proposed multiple active components involved in different types of information processing (e.g., visual and verbal). The model was designed to reflect how memory works in more realistic, complex tasks, like problem-solving, reading, and multitasking. Much of the supporting research was conducted in laboratory settings, allowing for high control over variables.

Question 21

Links to the wmm

Answer 21

Baddeley & Hitch (1976): Dual-task experiments (verbal + visual tasks).

Case study – KF: Damaged verbal STM but intact visual STM = separate stores.

Brain scans: Different brain areas active for different memory tasks.

Question 22

Implications of the wmm

Answer 22

as implications for understanding learning difficulties, like dyslexia or ADHD, which may involve problems with one or more components of the model (e.g., phonological loop or central executive)

Question 23

Comparisons to the wmm

Answer 23

Compared to the Multi-Store Model (MSM), the Working Memory Model offers a more detailed and flexible view of short-term memory. MSM views STM as one passive store, whereas WMM sees it as an active system with multiple components. WMM also accounts better for multitasking and real-time processing. However, unlike MSM, the Working Memory Model doesn’t clearly explain how information is transferred to and from long-term memory, which is a limitation in terms of understanding the full memory process.

Question 24

Evaluation of the wmm

Answer 24

✅ Supported by lab experiments, brain scans, and case studies.
✅ Explains real-life memory use (e.g., multitasking).
❌ Central Executive is vague and hard to test.
❌ Doesn’t fully explain link between STM and LTM.

Question 25

Summary of Baddeley et al (1975)

Answer 25

Aims – In this study, Baddeley et al looked for evidence of one of the key principles of the WM model – that processing something in your head (e.g rehearsing a word) is done in real-time, that is, it takes the same amount of time as it would to actually say the word. Method – Participants were given groups of 5 words to remember. The group of words were either short (e.g book) or long (e.g university). Participants were asked to recall the first three letters of the words they could remember. Findings – The longer the words to remember the fewer people could retain.

Question 26

Links to the baddeley et al (1975) study

Answer 26

Directly supports the phonological loop part of the Working Memory Model. Contrasts with the Multi-Store Model, which sees STM as a fixed capacity (7±2 items), whereas this study shows time matters more than item count. Builds on previous WMM research (e.g., dual-task studies) by focusing specifically on verbal rehearsal.

Question 27

Implications of Baddeley et al (1975)

Answer 27

Has real-life implications in education, especially in designing tasks or tests that involve verbal memory (e.g., don't overload with long words).

Question 28

Comparisosn to the Baddeley et al (1975) study

Answer 28

Baddeley et al. (1973) – Dual Task Studies Why it links: Tested whether people can perform two tasks at once (e.g., verbal and visual), showing that separate components exist in working memory. How it connects: Strengthens the multi-component idea of WMM, just like the 1975 study does with the phonological loop. Use it for: Comparing how different tasks affect different parts of working memory.

Question 29

Evaluation of Baddeley et al (1975)

Answer 29

✅ High control = high internal validity (clear cause-and-effect). ✅ Strong support for a specific part of the Working Memory Model. ❌ Low ecological validity – remembering word lists in a lab isn't how we usually use memory in daily life. ❌ Possible demand characteristics – participants might guess the purpose of the task.

Question 30

Summary of trace decay

Answer 30

This explanation of forgetting in STM assumes that memories leave a trace within the brain. A ‘trace’ can be thought of as a physical/chemical change in the nervous system. During this stage of the process (i.e. corresponding to STM) the trace is very fragile and can be easily disrupted. This explanation suggests that if the trace is repeated often enough it will lead to permanent structural changes in the cells of the brain and turn the STM into LTM. If the trace is disrupted, however, then the information would decay and disappear. Trace decay focuses on time and the limited duration of short term memory and suggests that short term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the information / trace decays and fades away.

Question 31

Links to trace decay

Answer 31

Links to the Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), which suggests that STM is limited in duration (about 18–30 seconds) unless rehearsed. Can also be compared to Interference Theory (for forgetting in LTM), but trace decay focuses on time more than conflicting information.

Question 32

Implications of trace decay

Answer 32

Highlights the importance of rehearsal in memory retention — useful in education and revision strategies. Suggests that distractions can cause forgetting, even without interference.

Question 33

Comparisons of trace decay

Answer 33

Unlike Interference Theory, which says memories compete, trace decay argues memory simply fades over time.

Question 34

Evaluation of trace decay

Answer 34

✅ Simple and easy-to-test idea, supported by lab experiments. ✅ Explains rapid forgetting from STM, especially when rehearsal is prevented. ❌ Lacks ecological validity — lab tasks (e.g., trigrams) aren't like real-life memory use. ❌ Doesn’t account for interference, retrieval failure, or the role of meaning. ❌ Can’t explain how some memories last in STM without rehearsal, or why some decay faster than others.

Question 35

Summary of interference

Answer 35

Interference proposes that memories are competitive and can be disrupted. This idea suggests that information in LTM may become ‘confused’ or combined with other information during encoding, thus distorting or corrupting memories. proactive = You’re trying to learn something new, but your old memories get in the way. retroactive = You’ve learned something new, but it causes you to forget or confuse something you learned earlier.

Question 36

Links to interference

Answer 36

Links to LTM in the Multi-Store Model — shows that forgetting from LTM isn’t always about decay, but about competing information. McGeoch & McDonald (1931): Found that learning similar material after a word list made recall worse — shows retroactive interference

Question 37

Implications of interference

Answer 37

Explains why studying similar subjects close together (e.g., French and Spanish) can lead to confusion and forgetting. Supports spaced learning and using distinctive material to reduce interference.

Question 38

Comparisons to interference

Answer 38

Vs Trace Decay: Interference focuses on similarity of information, while decay is about passage of time.

Question 39

Evaluation of interference

Answer 39

✅ Strong support from lab experiments with high control and replicability. ✅ Explains real-world forgetting (e.g., mixing up phone numbers or passwords). ✅ Has predictive power – more interference = more forgetting. ❌ Lab tasks often use artificial materials, which may not reflect real memory use. ❌ Doesn’t explain why some memories interfere but others don’t (e.g., emotional or meaningful memories tend to resist interference). ❌ Can’t explain sudden recall of information previously forgotten – retrieval failure covers that better.

Question 40

What is meant by the central executive?

Answer 40

* the central executive is the component of working memory that has overall control of the working memory system (1) * it directs attention to the two slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (1) * the central executive is required for carrying out new tasks (1) * it makes decisions about what deserves attention (1) * it deals with cognitive tasks like mental arithmetic. (1)