memory Flashcards
(28 cards)
what is encoding
changing information so that it can be stored in the brain
what are the types of encoding?
visual encoding: how something looks
acoustic encoding: how something sounds
semantic encoding: the meaning of something
tactile encoding: memory of what things feel like to touch
olfactory: memory for smells
what is storage
holding information in your memory so that it can be retrieved at a later point in time
what is retrieval
the process of accessing information in your brain and being able to use it
what are the types of retrieval?
recognition: identifying something learned previously from a number of options
cued recall: being given a clue to help remember
free recall: remembering something without any clue
Describe Baddeleys study:
Aim: aimed to see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in short term memory and long term memory
Method: four groups were given 12 sets of 5 words to remember
Group A: similar sounding words
Group B: dissimilar sounding words
Group C: similar meaning words
Group D: dissimilar meaning words
Group A and B were asked to recall immediately - testing STM
Group C and D were asked to recall their words after 20 minutes - testing LTM
Results: Group A recalled fewer words then group B, Group C recalled fewer words then group D. In STM words with similar sounds were recalled more poorly than words with different sounds. In LTM words with similar meanings were recalled more poorly then words with differenr mwaninfs,
Conclusion: This shows STM is encoded by sound and LTM is encoded by meaning
Evaluate Baddeleys study:
A strength is that the study was well controlled and used a well- designed laboratory study, where extraneous variables could be controlled. For example, hearing was controlled by conducting a hearing test before the experiment, Therefore we can be more certain that the type of words were the factor that affected recall.
A weakness is that LTM may not have been tested properly. Waiting Twenty minutes before recall does not mean the words are in the LTM. This means that the conclusion that the LTM encodes semantically may not be valid.
Another weakness is that encoding the STM does not always involve sound. Other studies have found that if pictures are recalled rather than words, visual encoding is used. This suggests that information may not just be encoded in acoustic form by the STM
What is LTM.
memories that could last a week, a month or even a lifetime.
What are the 3 types of LTM
semantic : memory about what things mean
episodic: memory about events from your life
procedural: memory of how to dk things
what is declarative and non declarative memory
declarative : need conscious recall - semantic and episodic memory
non declarative : do not need conscious recall - procedural
Evaluate the different types of LTM
A strength is that the research is supported by case studies of patients with amnesia. Clive Wearing lost most of his episodic memory but was still able to play the piano- so he did not lose his procedural memory, This shows there are different types of LTM
A weakness is that distinctive types of LTM are difficult to separate, Semantic and episodic memory does not have a clear difference, because memories are usually a mixture of the types. Therefore having separate types of LTM may be an oversimplification.
Describe the multi store model
States that there are 3 memory stores and each has a different encoding, capacity and duration. Information moves between these stores through either attention or rehearsal.
1. Sensory memory: holds information from the senses for a short time and has a large capacity. paying attention to information transfers it to the STM
2. STM: temporary memory store with a limited capacity of 5-9 items lasting up to 30 seconds. verbal repetition keeps information in the STM. prolonged rehearsal transfers information to the LTM
3. LTM: encoded by meaning, this is a permanent memory store with unlimited capacity and information that can be stored up to a lifetime,
Evaluate the MSM
One strength is that there is support for the existence of different memory stored, Baddeleys study of encoding shows that STM and LTM encode information differently, This shows the two types of memory have qualitative differences.
One weakness is that the model is too simple and only suggests we have one STM and one LTM. Research shows STM is divided into visual and acoustic, and LTM into semantic, episodic and procedural memory, So memory is more complex then the model proposes.
Another weakness is that research supporting the model used artificial materials. For example, word lists. This means it does not illustrate all the different ways we use memory.
Describe Murdocks study
Aim: Murdock set out to investigate if the serial position effect was influenced by the number of words in a list
Method: words from the 4000 most common words in English were chosen randomly. Participants listened to 20 word lists with between 10-40 words on them. They recalled the words after each list
Results: Recall was not affected by the number of words in each list but by the position of the word. (serial position effect) Murdock found higher recall for the first few words (primary effect) and for the last few words (recency effect) then the words in the middle of the list.
Conclusion: the results confirm that the serial position effect determines the likelihood of recall. These findings support the MSM as the first few words were rehearsed so are in LTM, and the last few words have been heard recently so are in STM.
Evaluate Murdocks study
One strength is that it is well controlled. Familiarity of the words was the same throughout each list, so we can be more certain it was the position of the words that affected recall.
A weakness of the study is that the task was artificial. Lists of words were used which only relates to one type of memory. Therefore the study doesn’t relate to how we use memory in other ways, such as for personal events.
Another strength is that research on patients with amnesia supports the conclusions of the study. Research found that some patients with amnesia cant store long term memories and do not show a primary effect bur can show a recency effect. This shows primary effect is related to long term memory.
Describe Bartletts War of the Ghosts study
Aim: Bartlett aimed to investigate how memory is reconstructed when people are asked to recall an unfamiliar story- particularly a story from a different culture
Method: Participants were shown war of the ghosts story. they recalled it after 15 minutes, then after weeks, then months, then years. Bartlett recorded the recall
Results: Participants changed the story. They left out information they were less familiar with. The story was shortened, and phrases were changed to those used in the participants own culture.
Conclusion: The study shows that we use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory, as details of the story were invented to improve meaning.
Evaluate Bartletts war of the ghosts study
A weakness is that the study lacks control. For example, participants were not told that accurate recall was important, but other studies found recall was more accurate when participants were told this. This suggests recall is more accurate than Bartlett proposed.
Another weakness is that Bartletts own beliefs may have affected the results. He analysed the recollections himself, His belief that recall would be affected by cultural expectations may have biased the interpretation of the results. Therefore, we cant fully trust the conclusion.
Another weakness is that the story was unusual. Recall of the story may not reflect everyday memory processes, as these would be less affected by cultural expectations. Therefore, the study tells us little about everyday memory.
Describe the theory of reconstructive memory
Memory is inaccurate: people remember the overall meaning of events, and when retrieving information, they rebuild the memory. We do not have exact recall. Elements are missing and memories are not an accurate representation of what happened.
Reconstruction: We record small pieces of information in long term memory, During recall we recombine them to tell the whole story. Each time, the elements are combined slightly differently.
Social and cultural influences: the way that information is stored and recalled is affected by social and cultural expectations. like using the phrase ‘going fishing’ instead of ‘hunting seals’
Effort after meaning: we focus on the meaning of events and make an effort to understand the meaning to make sense of parts of the story.
Evaluate the theory of reconstructive memory:
One strength is that the research reflects how we use memory in our everyday lives. The research doesnt use artificial word lists but instead uses a story. This makes the findings more relevant to real life memory processes.
A weakness is that not all memories are reconstructed, For example, in Bartletts war of the ghosts study, participants often recalled ‘something black came out of his mouth’ because it was a distinctive phrase. this shows that some memories are accurate.
Another strength of the theory is that reconstructive memory explains problems with eyewitness testimony’s. Bartletts research shows that memory is affected by expectations, indicating that people do not always recall accurately. Therefore eye witness testimonys are no longer solely relied on as evidence for criminal investigations.
Describe the role of interference in memory:
if two memories compete with each-other, one memory may prevent us from accessing the other memory.
Describe McGeoch and McDonald’s study of interference on memory:
Aim: McGeoch and Mcdonald aimed to see whether the accuracy of recalling a list of words would be affected by a competing set of words.
Method: Participants learned a list of ten words and were then shown a new lost.
There were 5 different new lists: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, nonsense syllables, 3 digit numbers, or no new list.
Results: When participants recalled the initial list of words, memory was affected by the new list. The effect was the strongest when the new list had words with similar meanings to the first list.
Conclusion: this shows that interference from a second set of information reduces the accuracy of memory. Interference is strongest when the two sets of information are similar
Evaluate McGeoch and Mcdonaldsons study
One strength of the study was that there was high control. Techniques like counterbalancing were used to reduce the impact that learning the lists in the same order would have on the results. This reduced extraneous variables in the study.
A weakness of the study is that it does not reflect real life memory activity. We dont often have to remember lists of words. This means that the conclusion about the effect of interference on memory is limited due to its artificality.
Describe the impact of context on memory
other things that are present at the time of learning act as a cue for recall. this improves the accuracy of memory
describe godden and baddeleys study: context
Aim: godden and baddeley aimed to investigate if context improved recall. they used underwater ‘wet’ and on the beach ‘dry’ as the two contexts.
Method: divers listened to and recalled words in the same or different settings.
Same context: dry,dry or wet,wet
different context: wet, dry or dry,wet.
Results: recall was highest in the two matching conditions (dry,dry or wet,wet). when a person was in the same environment for learning and recall, their memories were more accurate.
Conclusion: context of learning acts as a trigger or cue when trying to remember information, and therefore improves the accuracy of memory
