Memory Flashcards

Question

What is duration?

Answer 1

How long memory lasts.

Answer 2

Aim: To discover the duration of STM Participants: 24 students. Experimenter said a nonsense trigram (three letters randomly put together), followed by a three digit number. Participants counter back in three's from this number until told to stop. This was called the retention interval (time between hearing information and having to recall it). After the retention interval they were asked to recall the nonsense trigram.

Answer 3

Findings: After a 3 second interval, 90% of trigrams were recalled, after an 18 second interval, 2% was recalled. Conclusion: STM has a duration of 18 seconds.

Answer 4

When participants act differently because of the added attention of being in a study.

Answer 5

Aims: To identify the duration of LTM Participants: 400 people aged 17-74 Procedure: Participants asked to recall their graduating class: - Free recall- recall any names they remember off the top of their heads - Photo recognition- use pictures of graduating class to jog memory of names - Name recognition- select names of people from graduating class from a list of lots of names.

Answer 6

After 15 years: Free recall (60%), Picture (90%), Name (90%) After 48 years: Free recall (30%), Picture (70%), Name (80%) Therefore we have unlimited duration, and if that is the case we must also have unlimited capacity.

Answer 7

- Labortory experiment so less likely to be extraneous variables which increases validity. - Done in an artificial environment so has low ecological validity, and there is more likely to be demand characteristics, the hawthorne effect, which could act as extraneous variables lowering its validity. - Large sample size, which is good. - But, there is a culture bias (only one culture is studied) so we can't generalize the results.

Answer 8

How much information can be held in memory?

Answer 9

Aims: To see what the capacity of STM is Procedure: The serial digit span technique (repeating back a string of increasing items in the correct order). E.g. 4, 4, 6, 4, 6, 2, 5, etc. Findings: On average, participants recall 9.3 digits and 7.3 letters. Conclusion: The capacity of STM is between 5 and 9 items

Answer 10

That we can recall 7+/- items. If we chunk information we can remember more.

Answer 11

How information is stored in memory.

Answer 12

Aims: To find how information is stored in STM & LTM Participants: 147 servicemen Procedure: Four different groups= each group read a different word list: 1. Acoustically similar (bat, hat, cat etc.) 2. Acoustically dissimilar (pit, cow, pen etc.) 3. Semantically similar (large, huge, big etc.) 4. Semantically dissimilar (e.g good, hot, safe) 50% participants had a 20 minute retention interval (LTM), other 50% performed next stage straight away (STM): Participants given words and how to sort them into the correct order that they had just heard.

Answer 13

In STM test, participants recalled words in correct order least on list 1. In LTM test, participants recalled words in correct order least on list 3.

Answer 14

In STM we encode acoustically (by sound), which is why it is difficult to recall words that sound the same in the correct order as they interfere with each other. In LTM we encode semantically (by meaning), which is why it is difficult to recall words that mean the same in the correct order as they interfere with each other.

Answer 15

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Answer 16

![]() Sensory memore - (attention)---Short term memory (rehersal underneath) (transfer arrow away; retrieval arrow too)---- Long term Memory

Answer 17

Sensory Memory is everything going on around us- if we pay attention to something it moves to our STM. To keep it in STM we have to rehearse it, if we did this enough, it will transfer to LTM. When we want to recall something from LTM later, we need to retrieve it back into STM. (later developments): 'Rehearsal was changed to maintance rehearsal, and transfer was changed to 'elaborative rehearsal'

Answer 18

When asked to recall a list, we remember it from the start of the list and the end of the list. It seems tos show that items from the start of the list have already been transferred to LTM, and those from the end are still being rehearsed. The rest have been lost. THis supports the multistore memory model.

Answer 19

The Primary and recency effect (Glanzer and Cunitz) Peterson & Peterson, Jacobs, Bahrick, Baddeley as all these studies highlight the difference between STM and LTM. Scaville and Milner- Studied a damaged patient who could not transfer new memories from STM to LTM Sperling- FOund participants only recall sections of a grid they have been shown for miliseconds- they could only recall what they attended to Cherry- The cocktail party effect- we only recall what we attend to, if our attention is diverted, we will fail to recall what the original person was saying.

Answer 20

- Reliable as supported by lots of research - Assumes we are all the same so is culture and gender biased - Ignores individual differences so low validity and cannot be generalised - TOo simplistic (Clive Wearing supports the case for different stores for visual and acoustic memory) so is therefore reductionist - It is not very scientific, so difficult to to prove - Most support for it were conducted in laborties, so it lacks ecological validity.

Answer 21

Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 22

The central executive is 'the boss' which sends incoming information to the other areas. The visuo-spatial sketchpad deals with any information that is seen or any navigation tasks and awareness of what is around us. The phonological loop deals with information that is heart- the phonological store holds it momerarily (inner ear) and the articulatory process repeats it (innter voice). Later, an episoder buffer was added beteween the central executive and the other stores, and starts processing the information before the central executive sends it to one of the slave systems.

Answer 23

He showed that if we conduct two tasks simultaneously using visual store (tracking light and explaining angles on the little F) we can't do it but we can do two tasks simultaneously that use seperate stores (e.g. auditory and visual). THis supports the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

Answer 24

He had differences in visual and auditory memory so this supports the idea that there are separate stores.

Answer 25

He supports the central executive as he used MRI scanning to show that the brain is more active when dealing with two tasks at once as the central executive has more information to process.

Answer 26

The word length effect (we can recall more short words than long words) supports the idea that we rehearse on a loop- more short words can fit on the loop but the long words fill it up quicker so we cannot recall as many of them.

Answer 27

When participants were shown words for milliseconds, they could recall more if the words were related (sentences) which supports that some very quick intiial processing must have started.

Answer 28

Questions that can influence people's memory of an event.

Answer 29

Aims: To see if leading questions can influence memory Procedurer: Participants were shown 7 films of care crashes. After each one, given questionnarie about the film. THere was one critical question and give groups of participants who each got a different version of this question. 'About how fast were the cars going when they... each other?". Each group had a different verb- 'smahsed', 'hit', 'bumped', 'collided', 'contacted.'

Answer 30

Findings: Mean speed estimates were influenced by the verb: ``` Smashed= 40. 8 mph Collided= 39.3 mph Bumped= 38.1 mph Hit= 34.0 mph Contacted= 31.8 mph ``` Conclusion: Leading questions will influence memory- they are an example of post-event information

Answer 31

Some participants returned and were asked 'did you see any broken glass?' (there hadn't been any in the video)/ If they had previously had the 'smashed' question in the first study they were ore likely to say 'yes' and incorrectly recall the presence of broken glass.

Answer 32

Anxiety and age

Answer 33

When faced with a weapon we concentrate on this and don't recall as much about the perpetrator.

Answer 34

He conducted an experiment to prove the effect existed: Participants heard an argument in the next room- in condition 1 a man entered holding a greasy pen, in condition 2 the man entered holding a bloody letter opener. In condition 2 participants were only 33% accurate in identifying the man compared to 49% accurate in condition 1.

Answer 35

Showed participants a clip of a boy being shot in the face. Recall of details were inhibted by the anxiety of seeing the event.

Answer 36

They interviwed witnesses to a real life bank reobbery. The ones who had been the most threatened recallled more due to their heightened levels of arousal.

Answer 37

They interviewed 13 people who had witnessed a real armed robbery in Canada. The interview took place more than 3 months after the event. Those closest to the event provided the most detail. Those who had been most distressed at the time of the shooting proved the most accurate five months later.

Answer 38

When recall is delayed, old witnesses are less accurate, but this effect disappears if recall is immediate.

Answer 39

They showed children aged 3-8 a science demonstration. The parents then read the children a story with some of the elements of the science demonstration but also with some novel information. They found that when they were questioned about the science demonstration they incorporated some of the new information.

Answer 40

Questioned children and adults one day after an incident and then again 5 months later. No difference in the accuracy of the recall one day after, however, after 5 months there was a significant reduction in the accuracy of the children.

Answer 41

Young children can provide detailed and accurate witness statements but they are particularly open to suggestion.

Answer 42

He believes that the difference between adults and children is overstated and children can provide valuable evidence, but care must be taken with the interview process.

Answer 43

When questioned about a staged event, 80% of elderly participants compared to 20% of younger adults failed to mention that the attacker had a knife.

Answer 44

Aims: To investigate how memory is constructed Procedure: Repeated reproductions- participants were read a story ('war of the ghosts') and then asked to reproduce it after 15 minutes, then repeatedly over weeks, months and days.

Answer 45

Findings: Particopants: Shortened the story- mainly by omissions Changed the terminology to that of their own culture (e.g. canoe for boat) New version of the story became quite fixed after a while. Conclusion: We remember fragments and use our knowlede of social situations to reconstruct memory.

Answer 46

Fisher and Geiselman

Answer 47

1. Report everything 2. Mental reinstatement of original context 3. Changing the order 4. Changing the perspective

Answer 48

That interviews were only effective compared to standard interview techniques if all four parts are used.

Answer 49

He did a meta-analysis of 53 studies and found that the cognitive interview produced recall that is 34% more accurate than the standard interview.

Answer 50

They did a real world study in Brazil and found that the cognitive interview was far superior to standard interview techniques.

Answer 51

Iconic store for visual input (things we see) Echoic store for auditory input (things we hear) haptic store for tactile input (things we feel/touch)

Answer 52

To allow us to intergrate visual information so that, at a conscious level, we experience a smooth, continuous visual experience instead of a jumbed set of jerky, disconnected images. We have to hold in our sensory memory the information from one image during the few milliseconds it takes before the next image is presoned. This way we make sense of the visual presentation and our conscious mind is not aware of the infinitesimally brief moments of darkness between successive images.

Answer 53

To sift through huge amounts of incoming sensory information in order to avoid overloading the system. The sensory memory holds an image of the stimuli for a few milliseconds while they are scanned to decide which ones should be given attention and passed on through the system for further processing.

Answer 54

He used a chart containing three rows of ltters, which he displayed for very brief exposures (50 milliseconds) to his participants. Participants were immediately asked to recall as many of the letters as possible and could usually recall about four of five. However, they frequently reported having been aware of more letters even thoguh they could no longer recall them.

Answer 55

He trained participants to distinguish between three tones. He then exposed the chart for the same amount of time (50 milliseconds) but, this time, played one of the tones as soon as the chart had disappeared. Participants were instructed to recall the top row of letters in response to a high tone, the middle row in respond to a medium tone, and the bottom row in respond to a low tone. Particiapnts could then on average recall three (out of four) items from whichver row had been cued. The participants did not know which row they would be asked to recall, until after the display disappeared.

Answer 56

They recalled 3 from the row, which suggests they would have been able to recall 3 from any of the three rows, because an image of the whole array of letters was available in their iconic memory. Therefore, Sperling estimated that participants had actually seen 9 to 10 items of a possible 12 on the chart. The reaosn why they could only recall 4-5 items in the whole report technique is because the image of the whole array faded during the time it takes to report back these four items.

Answer 57

It was a laboratory experiment so there is a high level of control, and it can be replicated, so it is reliable. He also listened to what his participansts had to say at the end of his first study, i.e. that they had actually seen more letters than they could recall. This led him to generate a new hypothesis and devise a new method (the partial report technique) to test it.

Answer 58

The stimuli used was artificial and therefore might not reflect how we use memory in everyday circumstances, so it might lack validity.

Answer 59

- Items remain in sensory memory for a very brief period of time- (probably less than two seconds (or even less than that in the iconic store) - Information in sensory memory is in a relatively unprocessed form - Information is passively registered in sensory memory- we then actively select certain items for transmission to short term memory by paying attention to them. Only a tiny fraction of the items are passed on, the rest are lost. - There are separate sensory stores for the different senses

Answer 60

A type of forgetting where the items currently in the limited capacity STM are pushed out before being transferred to LTM to make room for incoming items.

Answer 61

A type of forgetting where information stored in LTM is confused with similar information.

Answer 62

The distinction between short term memory and long term memory.

Answer 63

Capacity Duration Encoding Forgetting STM very limited Very Mainly Mainly (7 +/- 2) limited acoustic displacement LTM Unlimited Unlimited Mainly Mainly (up to a semantic interference lifetime)

Answer 64

A way of testing memory where participants can recall items from a list in any order.

Answer 65

They reasoned that people can remember the last few words int he list (recency effect) because the words are sill circulating in the STM and can be easily retrieved. Words at the beginning of the list have been rehearsed and have passed into LTM and can be retrieved at the time of recall (the primary effect). Words in the middle (asymptote) are poorly recalled because they have had little time for rehearsal and have been displaced by later items in the list.

Answer 66

They gave participants lists of words presented one at a time and then tested their free recall. They were given two conditions in their experiment; 1. Participants were asked to recall the words immediately after they had been presented 2. Participants were given distractor task after the words had been presented and had to count backwards in threes for 30 seconds before they were asked to recall the words.

Answer 67

In condition 1, they found the expected serial position curve (words at the start and end were remebered better). However, in condition 2, they found that the distractor task had disrupted the recency effect and words from the last part of the list were not well recalled. They suggested that the task counting backwards in threes had displaced the law few words in the list from the fragile STM but the task had not affected the earlier words because they had already been rehearsed and passed into the robust LTM.

Answer 68

- Highly controlled labortory experiment, so it can be replicated and is reliable. - May lack ecological validity due to the artificiality of the task - Participants undertook several trials and their average score was recorded to avoid unrepresentative results. However, this could have lead to order effects.

Answer 69

* Rate of presentation (The slower the presentation, the better the performance * Age of participant (elder people rememnber fewer items than younger people) * Familiarity of the words (more familiar words are better remembered)

Answer 70

A young man, known only by his initials as HM suffered from severe epilsely and underwent a brain surgery, which alleviated his epilepsy but left him with sever memory deficits. He could recall events in his early life, but was unable to remember events for about ten years before the surgery and could not learn new information. He could remember approximentely six numbers in the order they were presented, suggesting his STM was relatively intact, but he could not remember the psychologists that spent long time with him, suggesting his LTM was no defective.

Answer 71

They reported on the case of KF, a young man who sustained brain injuries after a motorcycle accident. He appeared to have an intact LTM in that he was able to learn new information and recall stored information. However, his STM was affected so that he had a recency effect of only one item.

Answer 72

They adminstered a drug to a group of participant that blocks the action of acetylcholine ( a neurotransmitter, found to be low in people with alziemiers) in the brain. They then gave the participants various memory tasks that tested either LTM or STM and compared their performance with a control group. They found that the experimental group performed at normal levels on the STM tasks but significantly more poorly in the LTM task. This suggests they are different stores.

Answer 73

That the hippocampus is active in LTM tasks whereas areas in the pre-frontal cortex are activated for STM tasks.

Answer 74

A way of measuring the capacity of STM. Participants have to repeat back strings of digits in order of presentation. The number of digits in the string is gradually increased until the participant can no longer recall the sequence of digits correctly.

Answer 75

A way of testing STM where participants are required to recall items in teh order of presentation.

Answer 76

In 1887, he devised a method, called the digit span technique, and found that, on average, people could recall about seven digits in this immediate serial recall task and his findings have been supported in many subsequent studies.

Answer 77

What he called "the magical number seven, plus or minus two." He also believed that our immediate memory span is determined by the number of 'chunks' of information we can hold rather than the number of individual letters of numerals. He thought that the chunk was the basic unit in STM, and we can recall 7 +/-2 chunks of information at any one time.

Answer 78

He found that the span as measured in chunks depends on the amount of information contained in the chunk. He experimented with immediate serial recall of one-sylabble, two -sylabble, and three sylabble words, and for two-word and eight-word phrases. He found that the span in chunks was less with larger chunks, i.e. eight-word phrases, than with smaller chunks.

Answer 79

They used the recency effect rather than the digit span as a meausre of the capacity of STM. They found that the recency effect was 2.2. items, when the stimulus material consisted of single, unrelated words, but increased to 1.5 sentences (i.e. considerably more single words) when unfamiliar sentences were presented, and to 2.2 proverbs when familiar proverbs were used.

Answer 80

He believes that Miller might have overestimated the number of chunks that can be held in STM. He thinks that performance on span tasks is often affected by rehearsal and long-term memory and does not reflect the capacity of 'pure' STM. He then estimated that the capcity of STM is actually four chunks when such factors are controlled.

Answer 81

They found that digit strings that were repeated within a series of immediate memory span trials become easier for participants to recall. This suggests that the strings have been gradually reheased and stored in LTM, which temporarily increases the capacity of STM.

Answer 82

Baddeley (1999) suggests that this is because the digits are also then stored briefly in the echoic store, which strengthens the memory trace.

Answer 83

They compared memory spans for speakers of English with speakers of other languages. They found a direct relationship (correlation) between size of digit span and pronunciation time. For example, digit span was less for speakers of Arabic because their digits take longer to prounce than Egnlish digits. THis suggests that capacity of STM is determined by time constraints.

Answer 84

They foudn that the immediate memory span of young children was related to the length of time it took them to articulate the words.

Answer 85

THey found that people can recall the number of items that can be articulated in 1.5 seconds.

Answer 86

People who are highly anxious appear to have shorter spans.

Answer 87

1. Influence of long-term memory 2. Reading aloud 3. Proununciation time 4. Individual differences

Answer 88

Throguh rehearsing (or repeating) the information to ourseves. Repetition keeps the material in STM by continually reinserting it into the STM loop. Rehearsal strengthens the memory trace so that it can be lodged permanently in the LTM.

Answer 89

Where things that have already been learned make it harder to earn new things.

Answer 90

They presented participants with a consonant trigram (i.e. three consonants that do not form a pronounceable unit). Participants were then asked to count backwards in threes from a specified number. This was to stop them rehearsing the trigam. After interverals of 3, 6, 9, 13, 15, or 18 seconds, participants were asked to stop counting and to repeat the trigram. This procedure was repeated several times (trials) using different trigams on each presentation.

Answer 91

Participants were able to recall about 80% of trigrams after a 3-second interval without rehearsal but their recall became progressively worse as the time intervals lenthened until, after 18 seconds, they could recall fewer than 10% correctly. They concluded that information disappears or decays very rapidly from STM when rehearsal is prevented.

Answer 92

* Laboratory experiment meant extraneous variables could be controlled * Study used a repeated measures design to avoid indivudal differences.

Answer 93

* Trigrams are artificial things, and may not be a good way of testing how we remember things in everyday life * It is possible that the loss of information was more to do with capacitiy limitations that duration. The subsequent counting task might have pushed out (displaced) the trigram. * It is also possible that trigrams presented on earlier trials caused confusion (proactive interference) for the participants and so later trigrams are incorrectly recalled.

Answer 94

1. Rehearsal 2. intention to recall 3. amount of information to be recalled

Answer 95

The tested serial recall for sets of three familiar English nouns. In the condition where participants were not expecting to be asked to have to remember the words, correct recall fell to 1 % after only 4 seconds.

Answer 96

He adopted the Peterson and Peterson tecnique but used either a single, three-letter word such as cat or a set of three unrelated words such as pen, hat and lid. When he used three words as the stimulus he found the same pattern of decline in recall as in the original Peterson and Peterson study. However, when he used three letters )that formed a recognisable single word), recall was remarkably resistent to decay. Even though rehersal had been prevented, accurate recall level was at about 90% after 18 seconds. It seems, then, that the important factor is the number of chunks rather than the number of individual items.

Answer 97

He tested the memory of 392 graduates of an American high school for their former classmates. They used various memory tests including the recognition of classmates' pictures, matching names to pictures and recalling names with no picture cue. Participants performed remarkably well up to about 34 years althoguh performanc was better on recognition tasks than on recall tasks. There was a dip in performance on all types of memory test after 47 years but it is difficult to deciede whether this deficit is due to the passage of time or to the aging effects in the brains of older participants.

Answer 98

1. Experimental techniques; using cues as opposed to recall from scratch 2. Depth of earning 3. Pattern of learning 4. Nature of material to be learned

Answer 99

They tested LTM for algebra and geometry. People who had only taken maths courses up to secondary school level showed steady decline in their recall accuracy over the years. However, students who had gone on to take high course in maths showed high levels of acccurate recall as much as 55 years later. So depth of learning affects duration in LTM.

Answer 100

He looked at people who had learned Spanish and found that vocabulary items learned over spaced sessions were retained for longer than vocabulary learned in intensive sessions.

Answer 101

He tested Open University psychology students and found that certain subject topics were recalled more accurately over time. Statistics was an area that seemed to be particularly well retained possibly because it involves the acquisition of skills rather than facts.

Answer 102

The sound of a stimulus

Answer 103

The physical appearance of a stimulus

Answer 104

The meaning of the stimulus.

Answer 105

He showed participants a random sequence of six consonants. He projected them in very rapid sequence onto a screen. There were two conditions in his study: 1. The letters were acoustically similiar (e.g. B, G, C, T, D) 2. THe letters were acoustically dissimilar (e.g. F, j, X, M) Immediately after the presentation, participatnts were asked to write the lettes down in correct serial order.

Answer 106

Despite the fact that the noraml digit span is about 7, the participants should have found the recall task easy. However, participants frequently made errors of recall. The majority of errors involved the substitution of a similiar sounding letter. Participants found it more difficult to recall strings of letters that sounded the same than letters that sounded different. Remember, too, that the letters had been presented visually. Conrad concluded that we must convery visually presented material in STM to an acoustic code and then we find it difficult to distinguish between words that sound the same.

Answer 107

* It used artifical stimuli so might lack ecological validity * He used students as his participats, so is not generalisable to the rest of the population.

Answer 108

They showed participants pairs of letters such as B-B, B-b, A-B, with a very brief time delay between the two letters. Participants were simply asked to say whether the two letters had the same name or not. They found that people took longer to respod to B-b than BB if the delay between the two letters was less than 1.5 seconds, but took the same amount of time if the delay was longer than 1.5. seconds. They concluded that the visual code had been stored in STM for a very brief period but that this fragile code is soon translated into an acoustic code.

Answer 109

He constructed a list of short, familiar words for four categories; 1. Acoustically similiar words 2. Acoustically dissimilar words 3. Semantically similar words 4. Semantically dissimilar words For each category, he presented a random sequence of 5 words, and asked participants to write them down immediately after presentation in serial order. He found that words that sounded similiar were much harder to recall, and concluded that STM codes acoustically.

Answer 110

He modified his test of STM to test LTM, by extending the length of the word list to 10 and prevented the participants from rehearsing by interrupting them after each presentation. Each list was presented four times and then recall was tested after a 20 minute interval. He found that acoustic similarity had no effect on recall but that words that were similiar in meaning were poorly recalled. He concluded from this that LTM codes were mainly semantically.

Answer 111

1. There is plently of evidence to support the distinction between LTM & STM 2. It was an influential theory of memory based on the information-processing appraoch

Answer 112

1. Overly simplistic, and therefore reductionist 2. It takes no account of the different types of things we have to remember 3. There is considerable evidence that simple repetition is one of the least effective ways of passing on information 4. It is clear that information from LTM must sometimes be activated before certain stages of STM occur 5. Clinical evidence, such as KF, suggests that the memory system is interactive rather than sequential 6. Most of the evidence comes for lab experiments and therefore lack ecological validity

Answer 113

They described a special type of remembering called 'flashbuld memory'. which is where the insignificant details surrounding highly emotional and shocking events are imprinted directly in LTM without any rehearsal.

Answer 114

He measured brain activity in participants, who had been presented aurally with a set of words and pseudo-words and then asked to recall them in serial order. If people only process information acoustically in STM, there should be no difference in brain activity when processing words and pseudo words. However, Ruckhin found that there were considerable differences, whic suggests that semantic information stored in LTM was being used in this task.

Answer 115

A combination of letters that sound as though it could be an English word, but actually does not exist.

Answer 116

He showed that when acoustic coding is prevented by asking participants to repeat a meaningless chant (la la la) during the learning phase, visual coding can be used in STM and can, in fact, be more effective than acoustic coding.

Answer 117

Where participants are asked to carry out a primary task while also engaging in a secondary task. Performance is compared to performance on each of the tasks when done indivually.

Answer 118

They devised a dual tast method. They asked participants to perform a reasoning task (a sentence checking task) whilst simultaneously reciting aloud a list of six digits. They found that participants made very few errors on either the reasoning or the digit span task although the speed of verifying the setences was slightly slower thanw hen the task was doen alone. The concluded that STM must have more than one component and must be involved in processes other than simple storage, e.g. reasoning, understanding and learning. Two tasks can be carried out simultaneously as long as they required different parts of the memory system.

Answer 119

Repeating something 'under your bresth or mentally so it is not said aloud.

Answer 120

1. The central executive 2. The phonological loop 3. The visuo-Spatial sketchpad

Answer 121

A supervisory component that has overally control. It has limited capacity, but can process information from any sensory system. It has responsibility for a range of important control processes. This core component is supported by two 'slave' systems,which can be used as storage systems, thereby freeing up some of its own capacity to deal with more demanding information-processing tasks. The slave systems have separate responsibilities and work independently of each other.

Answer 122

This includes setting task goals, monitoring and correcting errors, starting the rehearsal process, switching attention between tasks, inhibiting irrelevant information, retrieving information from LTM, switching retrieval plans and coordinating the activity needed to carry out more than one processing task at a time.

Answer 123

The phonological loop now consists of a passive storage system called the phonological store, which is linked to an active rehearsal system called the 'articulatory loop' whereby words can be maintained by subcoval repetition. Similarly, the visuo-spatial sketchpad consists of a passive visual store called the 'visual cache' which is linked to an active 'inner scribe' that acts as a rehearsal mechanism.

Answer 124

When a participent is given a task that would usually make use of the articulatory loop but they are simultaneously asked to repeat aloud a meaningless chant, e.g. la-la-la

Answer 125

They gave visual presentations of word lists for very brief exposures and then asked participants to write them down in serial order. In one condition, the lists consisted of five words taken from a pool of familiar, one-syllable English words. In the second condition, the 5 words came from a list of polysyllabic words. Average correct recall over several trials showed a marked superiority for the short words. They called this the 'word length effect' and concluded tha tthe capacity of the loop is determined by the length of time t takes to say words. They estimated this time to be 1.5 seconds.

Answer 126

That longer words are simply less familiar than shorter words and are, therefore, harder to recall.

Answer 127

They used articulatory suppression. They found that the word length effect disappeared. This suggests that the advantages in recalling short over long words depends critically on having a verbal rehearsal system, i.e. the articulatory loop. If this loop is filled up with irrelevant material i.e. lalala, then it seems likely that short anre long words are being processed elsewhere, probably in the central executive.

Answer 128

Participants were asked to imagine folding a flat shape to form a cube with the grey area as the bast and then to decide whether in the finished cube, the arrows would meet head on. They found that the time taken to make the decision was systematically related to the number of folds that would have been required if the participants had actually been doining the foldings. In other words, visual images work in very similar ways to real-life perception.

Answer 129

In tasks for temporary storage and manipulation of visual patterns and spatial movements.

Answer 130

Participants had enormous difficulty in tracking the spot of light and accurately classifying the corners. This seems to be because the two wasks were competing for the same limited resources of the visuo-spatial sketchpad. THis conclusion is supported by the finding that participants could successfully carry out the tracking task at the same time as performing a verbal task.

Answer 131

That the visual cache stores information about visual form and colour and that the inner scribe processes spatial and movement information.

Answer 132

A task that gets in the way of the processing necessary to do the task being tested, e.g. being asked to say what colour words are printed in but the words are the names of colours (the stroop effect)

Answer 133

They asked participants to carry out one of two primary tasks: a visual task and a spatial task. At the same time as doing one of these tasks, they were aseked to do either: 1. A spatial interference task 2. A visual interference task 3. No secondary task (control condition) They found that perofmrnace of the spatial task was much poorer for people who were simultaneously carrying out the spatial interference task than for people than for people who were doing the visual interfernece and vice versa.

Answer 134

There appears to be more activity in the left half of the brain of people carrying out visual working memory tasks but more in the right half of the brain during spatial tasks.

Answer 135

That this complexity 'makes it considerably harder to investigate' than the two slave systems.

Answer 136

He investigated the functions attributed to the central executive of selective attention aand switching retrieval plans. He asked participants to generate random strings of digits by pressing numbered keys on a keyboard. This task was carried out on its own or simultaneously with either: 1. Reciting the alphabet 2. Counting from 1 3. Alternatiing between letters and numbers (.i.e. A1, B 2, C, 3 etc)

Answer 137

The generated digit string became considerably less random in condition 3 when participants were having to switch from alphabet to numbers at the same time. Baddeley concluded that both the random number generation task and the alternation task were competing for the same central executive resources.

Answer 138

He gave participants two tasks to do either simultaneously or on their own. Under dual task conditions, which involve greater input for the central executive than single task conditions, there was significantly greater activation of the pre-frontal cortex.

Answer 139

1. It is more plausible, as it can be applied to previous research data, and explains data difficult for multi-store memory model to explain 2. It can account for individual differences in memory processing 3. It could have real life application- There have been investigations into its use as a recruitment tool for the US air force

Answer 140

1. The exact role played by the cnetral executive remains unclear 2. Berz (2005) criticised the model for failing to account for musical memory because we are able to listen to instrumental music wihtout impairing performance on other acoustic tasks.

Answer 141

He presented evidence that the phonological loop, for example, plays a key role in the development of reading and that the phonological loop is not operative in some children with dyslexia. While it seems to be less crucial for fluent, adult readers, it still has an important role in helping to comprehend complex text. It also helps in the learning of new spoken vocabularly.

Answer 142

They asked participants to hold a list of words in memory whilst simultaneously working out mental arithmetic problems. THe number of words correctly recalled in a subsequent test was called the 'working memory span'

Answer 143

A number of studies (Engle, Kane and Tuholski, 1999) have shown it tbe linked to the ability to carry out various cognitive tasks such as reading, comprehension, reasoning, spatial navigation, spelling, note-taking etc.

Answer 144

They remonstrated that there can be indivdual differences within the components of working memory. THey showed that an individual can score high on spatial working memory yet low on verbal working memory and vice versa.

Answer 145

That in order to explain abilities such as text comprehension, working memory should also encompass some kind of long-term memory activation.

Answer 146

The evidence given in court or in police investigations by someone who has witnessed a crime or an accident

Answer 147

Where people accept misleading imformation after an event and absorb it into their memory for the actual event.

Answer 148

He showed participants a film of the events leading up to a car accident. After they had seen the film, participants were divided into a control group and an experimental group. The control group was asked questions consistent with what they had actually seen (How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the stop sign?), whereas the experimental group was asked a question that included misleading information (How fast was the white sports car going when it passed the barn while travelling along the country road?) There had been a Stop sign in the original film but no barn. All the participents were then asked more questions about the accident.

Answer 149

17% of the participants in the experimental group reported seeing a barn in the original film but only 3% of the control group made this error. He concluded that some of the participants given the misleading post-event information had actually absorbed this with their original memory for the event and now really believed they had seen a barn.

Answer 150

1. The situation was artificial and lacks ecological validity as in real life, witnesses would not have been prepared for an accident. 2. Some have said that her participants were subject to demand characteristics 3. There were ethical issues as she could not obtain fully informed consent because she could not reveal in advane that she was going to ask misleading questions. 4. The car accident could have been distressing (although it was a minor one with no personal injuries.)

Answer 151

She offered to reward participants with money if they could correctly reall details from a film of an accident. One group saw a film involving a pedestrian being knocked over after a car had stopped at a Stop sign. The other group saw the same incident except that the car had stopped at a Yield sign. Two days later, participants were given a set of questions about the accident, one of which included some misleading information. She then asked all participants to look at pairs of slides, and point out, in each case, which one had been part of the original film. She divied them up into 4 groups; those offered no monetary reward, those offered $1 for each correct answer, those offered $5 for each correct answer, those offered $25 to the person who scored the most correct answers.

Answer 152

In the critical question, participants who had seen the Stop sign in the film were misled by a reference to a Yield sign and vice versa. In the secon dpart of the test, she found that in spite of financial incentive 70% made an error on the crucial question inline with the misleading information they had been fed. THis suggests that their original memory had been altered as a result of the misleading post-event information.

Answer 153

They did a similiar study to Loftus using a pair of slides. They asked participants not just to identify the slide they had seen in the original persentation, but also to give more descriptive details. They found that people who had actually seen a Stop sign were able to give a far more detailed description of the scene than people who had been misled. THe suggests that real events are associated with much richer perceptual detail than imagined events.

Answer 154

They showed participants a brief film clip of a car accident and then asked a series of questions. Half of the participants were asked whether they had seen 'a' broken headlight', and the other half was asked if they had seen 'the' broken headlight. Although there was no broken headlight in the film, 17% of people asked about 'the' broken headlight reported seeing one as opposed to only 7% of the group asked about 'a' broken headlight.

Answer 155

They showed participants a film of a car accident and then asked them a series of questions about events leading up to the accident. One crucial question concerned the speed of the car on impact. One group was asked 'How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Other groups were asked the same question, but the verb was changed to either "smashed", "bumped", "Collided" or "contacted". The very used significantly affected speed estimates- 'smashed' produced the highest, and 'contacted' produced the lower. A week later, when questioned again, those who had been asked the 'smahsed' version of the question were more likely to report having seen broken glass, even though there was none.

Answer 156

He identified the idea of reconstructive memory in which, instead of storing an exact replica of events, we blend in elements of our own knowledge and experience to make it more memorable. THis is called a schema.

Answer 157

They drew up a list of elements that might occur during a shoplifting scenario. She asked people to rate these events in terms of how likely they were to occur in a typical shoplifting incident. She then compiled a video showing 8 different shoplifting incidents and included some elements that had been rated as high probabilility and those low probability. She then shwoed the video to a new set of participants and asked them, a week last to recall what they had seen.

Answer 158

She found that participants were more likely to recall high probability events than low probability events and that they often reported seeing high probability elements and that they often reported seeing high probability elements that had not actually been included in the video at all.

Answer 159

- She took trouble to try to make her video realistic (although this is still not the same as a real-life incident) - She used a pilot study to find out what elements people most commonly associate with shoptlifting.

Answer 160

The found that most people's 'bank robbery schema' consists of: Bank robbers being male, they were some kind of disguise, they wear dark clothes, they demand money from the cashiers, they have a getaway car waiting outside the bank, the getaway car has a driver sitting in it. When they showed people of a staged bank hold up, the participants had better recall for elements of the film that conformed to their schema than to elements that did not.

Answer 161

They read accounts to participants of either a palace burglary or a school field trip to a palace. On the next day, all the participants were shown a video of a museum burglary and then asked to recall events from the video. Participants who had previously heard the account of the palace burglarly made more errors in recall that people who had heard the account of the school trip. This suggests that memory for events can be distorted by previous knowledge of a similar topic.

Answer 162

Some participants were shown a particularly violent version of a crime in which a boy was shot in the face. These participants had significantly impaired recall for events running up to the violent incidient.

Answer 163

Particiapnts were asked to sit outside a laboratory where they thought they were hearing genuine exchanges between people inside the labority. In one condition, they heard an amicable discussion about an equipment failure. A man with greasy hands then came out of the laboratory holding a pen. In the other conditions they heard a hostile argument, followed by the sound of breaking glass and overturned furniture. A man then emerged from the laboratory holding a knife covered in bloo. Participants were then given 50 photos and asked to identify the man.

Answer 164

People who had witnessed the peaceful scene were more accurate in recognising the man than people who had witnessed the more violent scene. Loftus believed that the anxiety elicited by the weapon (i.e. the blood-stained knife) narrowed the focus of attention for the witness and took attention away from the face of the man.

Answer 165

They reported that in real incidents involving high levels of stress, memory can be accurate, detailed and long lasting. They carried out a survey among 110 people, who had witnessed between them 22 genuine bank robberies. Some of these people had been bystanders in the bank at the time of the hold-ups while others had been directly threatened by the robbers. THe victims, i..e. the people who had been subjected to the greatest anxiety, showed more detailed and accurate recall than the onlookers.

Answer 166

That children are more willing than adults to make a positive identification but they are often of the wrong person.

Answer 167

They engaged children aged 3-8 in a science demonstration. The parents then read them a story, which contained some elements of the science demonstration, but also some novel information. The children were then questioned about the science demonstration and it was found that they had incorporated much of the new information into their original memory. In another phase, the children were asked to think very carefull about where they got their informatino form, and some of the older children then revised their account of the sceince demonstration and excrated the post-event information, but younger children did not seem able to do this.

Answer 168

Identiying where information has been gathered from.

Answer 169

* It was difficult to eliminate extraneous variebles compared to a more highly controlled laboratory setting * Using young children can make it difficult to get informed consent, and you have to be careful they are paying attention and understand instructions.

Answer 170

He questioned children and adults one day after an incident and then again five months later, There were no differences in the amount and the accuracy of recall after a singe day but there was significant forgetting in the children after five months.

Answer 171

That young children can provide detailed and accurate witness statements, but that they are particularly susceptible to suggestion and their accounts should be viewed with caution.

Answer 172

They found, that when asked questions about a staged event, 80% of elderly paricipants compared to 20% of younger adults failed to mention that the attacker had a knife in his hand.

Answer 173

They showed a film of a kidnapping to groups of middle aged and elderly participants. They then read a narrative account of the scene they had just witnessed. For half the participants, the narrative account was consistent with what they had seen in the film and for the other half the narrative contained some misleading information. In a subsequent recall test, elderly participants were found to have been much more susceptible to the effects of misleading information.

Answer 174

He tried to see whether witnesses were more likely to be accurate if they believed that their evidence would infuence a conviction. Participants watched a video of a bank robbery and were than asked to pick out the robbers from an identity parade. Half of the participants were told that it was a genuine robbery and that their responses would influence the trial, while the others were led to believe that the film was a simulation. Participants were more accurate in the condition where they thought their testimony would have real consequences.

Answer 175

If they shared the following characteristics: * They have a generally poorer recall for the event (i.e. Not just the elements associated with misinformation) * They score high on measures of imagery vividness * THey have high scores on measures of empathy

Answer 176

She gave participants a set of slides that showed a red purse being stolen from a handbag. THey were later given an account of the theft that included several errors including the 'fact' that the purse was brown. In a subsequent recall test, all but two particpants resisted the misinformation about the colour but were influenced by misinformation about less central elements of the theft. She concluded that memory for information that is particularly striking is less susceptible to effects of misinformation than memory for more peipheral details.

Answer 177

THey stuided real interviews by experienced detective officers in Florida over a 4-month period. They found that witnesses were frequently bombared with a series of brief, direct and colse-ended questions aimed to elicit facts. However, the sequencing of theses questions often seemed out of sync with the witnesses' own mental representation of the event. WItnesses were often interupted and Iisher felt these interruptions were unhelpful because the broke the concentration of the witness and also encouraged shorter answers with less detail.

Answer 178

Geiselman et al (1985)

Answer 179

1. Context reinstatemnet 2. Report everything 3. Recall from changed perspective 4. Recall in reverse order

Answer 180

Mentally reinstate the context of the target event. Recall the scene, the weather, what you were thinking and feelong at the time, the preceding events, etc.

Answer 181

Report every detail you can recall even if it seems trivial

Answer 182

Report the episode in several different temporal orders moving backwards and forwards in time.

Answer 183

Try to describe the episode as it would have been seen from different viewpoints, not just your own.

Answer 184

They recommended that the interviewer should minimise distractions, actively listen to the witness, ask open-ended questions, pause after each response, avoid interruption, encourage the use of imagery, adapt their language to suit the witness and avoid any judgemental comments.

Answer 185

They rested participants by showing them videos of a simulated crime and then testing different groups with a cognitive interview, a standard police interview, or at interview under the influence of hypnosis. THe found that the cognitive interview elicited more infromation from the participants than either of the other two methods.

Answer 186

He found that witnesses questioned using the cognitive interview also recalled more incorrect information thatn those questioned using a standard technique, although this is probably because the cognitive interview procedure elicits more information in general.

Answer 187

They used the cognitive interview technique in real police settings in Miami. They trained detectives to use the enhanced cognitive interview techniques with genuine crime witnesses and found that is use significantly increased the amount of information recalled.

Answer 188

They tested all the cognitive interview procedures either singly or in combination. THey found that all four of the procedures used singly produced more recall from witnesses than standard interview techniques. However, the effective combination appeared to by the use of context reinstatement and recall everything, which is what practicing officers suspected.

Answer 189

He reviewed a number of studies and concluded that children under the age of six years actually reported events slightly less accurately in response to cognitive interview techniques. This is probably because they find the instructions difficult to understand. The cognitive interview can be used quiete effectively for children aged 8+

Answer 190

Organisation

Answer 191

Form a mental image of each word on a list and then 'hang' it on one of the pegs mentally. The stronger your mental image, you better you are likely to recall it.

Answer 192

Think of a regular route you take and visualise ten key locations on the way. If you have a list of things you need to remember, associate each one with one of the locations on your rote. When you need to remember it, just think about the landmarks on your journye nad the associated word/topic becomes available as well.

Answer 193

Nouns that can easily be visualised, e.g. dog, tree

Answer 194

Words that can't be perceived with your senses, e.g. love, nice

Answer 195

He found that participants could recall concrete nouns better than abstract words. He explained his fingings in term of the daul-coding hypothesis. This means that concrete words are encoded twice- one as a verbal code and then, again, as a visual image.

Answer 196

The found that this kind of imgery is more helpful when applied to items that have been presented verbally rather than visually. In terms of the working memory system, it could be that visually presented items and an accompanying visual image would be competing for the same storage resource, i.e. the visuo-spatial sketchpad, whereas verbally presented items and visual images would be help in sepearte loops.

Answer 197

Whereby you recall things better if the retrieval context is like the encoding context.

Answer 198

They asked participants to imagine a list of words being said aloud by a familiar person. Some participants were told to imagine a familiar female voice, and others a male voice. After a delay, participants were read a list of words that contained the previous list and some new words, and had to say which words they had been given before. Participants were more successful at this recognition task if the gender of the voice presenting matched the gender of the voice they had imagined in the first phase of the experiment.

Answer 199

They showed that the recall for information can be more successful if it is tested in the same room where it was learned. If that is not possible, it seems that simply imagining the original learning environment can help later recall.

Answer 200

He reviewed many stuides of mood-state-dependent memory and found some evidence that recall is better if mood at the time of learning matched mood at the time of retrieval. However, the effect is only slight and it seems that, if material has been well learned, context is less important.

Answer 201

They suggested that memory depends on deep and meaningful processing at the point of learning.

Answer 202

He investigated this idea by testing recall under different conditions. He presented a list of printed words to 4 different groups of participants and each each of them to carry out a different task: 1. Answer a structural question (e.g. is the word written in capital letters?) 2. Had to carry out an acoustic task (does this word rhym with dog etc 3. He to carry out a semantic task (e.g. Is it the name of a living thing) 4. Remember the words

Answer 203

In a later recognition test, people in group 3 performed significantly better than people in group 1 and 2 and at the same level as group 4. This suggests that meaningful engagement with the stimulus material leads to better retention and it also shows that this learning is incidental- in other words, people do not have to be making a deliberate effort to remember.

Answer 204

Because it activates numerous associations within the LTM- this means that material is easier to retrieve became more retrieval routes have been set up.

Answer 205

They stuided an individual called SF who was able to memorise lists of up to 80 digits. HOwever, to do this, he had to practise for an hour a day over a two-year period. This skill was not transferred to other types of lists and his memory span for words and letters was no better than average.

Answer 206

He has stessed the importance of meta-memory. This refers to your knowledge and awareness of your own memory and how it works. You need to recognise what strategies work for you and you need to be honest about your own strengths and weaknesses.

Answer 207

Several techniqeus devised for improving memory, such as the peg-word system, the method of loci and the keyword section.

Answer 208

1. Mnemonics based on visual imagery 2. organisation and understanding 3. Chunking 4. Encoding and retrieval stategies 5. Active processing