Memory

Question 1

Coding of sensory register

Answer 1

Iconic or echoic

Question 2

Capacity of sensory register

Answer 2

Very large / unspecified

Question 3

Duration of SR

Answer 3

1/4-1/2 second

Question 4

STM coding

Answer 4

Acoustic

Sound - Baddeley 1966

Question 5

STM capacity

Answer 5

7 +/- 2 chunks of info - Miller 1956

Question 6

STM duration

Answer 6

Without, rehearsal, less than 18 secs. Peterson x2 1959

Question 7

LTM coding

Answer 7

Semantic - meaning

Baddeley 1966

Question 8

LTM capacity

Answer 8

Potentially unlimited

E.g. Stephen Wiltshire

Question 9

LTM duration

Answer 9

Up to a lifetime

Bahrick et al 1975

Question 10

Strengths of Multi store model by Atkinson and shiffrin

Answer 10

Baddeley 1996 : immediate recall- STM worse with acoustically similar words, and after 20 mins LTM worse with semantically similar words. Shows how they’re separate stores and they code differently.
HM case study of amnesia - brain damage caused by operation to remove hippocampus from both sides of brain. Personality and intellect remained same, but couldn’t form new memories. Shows LTM and STM are differeng stores.

Question 11

Multi store model weakness reductionist

Answer 11

KF’s study - STM for digits were poor when read out to him, but better when he read to himself - shows visual and auditory info requires separate stores but MSM suggests there is only 1. So it’s reductionist and over simplified.

Question 12

MSM weakness elaborative processing to creat LTM is key

Answer 12

Craig and Lockhart suggested enduring memories are created by processing that you do, rather than maintenance rehearsal. Processed more deeply- doing more complicated things with items=more memorable.

Question 13

MSM weakness LTM actually has 3 types

Answer 13

Tulvings research shows 3 types of LTM. Maintenance rehearsal only explains LTM semantic memory like knowledge of the world but not episodic memories. So doesn’t support how MSM suggests both STM and LTM are single unitary stores.

Question 14

Episodic memory

Answer 14

Personal memories
Time stamped
Requires conscious effort to recall

Question 15

Semantic memory

Answer 15

Shared memories, everyone knows the event, facts and knowledge
Less time stamped
Can be concrete or abstract

Question 16

Procedural memory

Answer 16

Concerned with skills
Acquired through Repeated practise
Doesn’t require conscious effort to recall

Question 17

Strength case study of LTM types

Answer 17

Clive wearing - suffered servers virus leading to memory loss. Still remembered how to play piano - procedural memory intact. Couldn’t recall past events and little knowledge of world - episodic and semantic damaged.

Question 18

LTM types X case studies not reliable

Answer 18

In clinical case studies there’s lack of control of different variables e.g, precise location of brain damage or personality. So other factors might be affecting their memory damage. So difficult to generalise.

Question 19

LTM types strength brain scans evidence

Answer 19

Different areas of brain are active when different type of LTM is beinf used - episodic:hippocampus
Semantic : temporal lobe
Procedural : cerebellum

Question 20

Real life applications to improve people’s lives LTM types

Answer 20

Belleville et al. Episodic memories can be improved in elderly with mild cognitive impairments by training which improves memory performance.

Question 21

Working memory model

Answer 21

Visuo-spatial sketchpad : for spatial tasks - inner scribe and visual cache
Central executive : coordinates sub systems, focuses and switches attention
Phonological loop : phonological store, inner ear- auditory memory for few secs
and articulatory loop- sub vocal speech , inner voice
Later added in 2000: episodic buffer;temporary store for info and links STM to LTM
And LTM

Question 22

Word length effect research for WMM

Answer 22

Baddeley et al 1975
Asked to write down as many words they can remember from short word list - harm, and long word list - association. Remembered more shorter words. Phonological loop holds amount of info u can say in 1.5-2 secs so makes it harder to remember longer words, inhibiting rehearsal. Limited capacity in phon. Store.

Question 23

Limitation of WMM central executive vague

Answer 23

CE lacks clarity and cognitive psyche suggest its unsatisfactory cuz it should be more clearly specified . Not just ‘attention’. WMM not fully explained

Question 24

CE may have more than one component WMM X

Answer 24

Eslinger and Damasio: Studied EVR-cerebral rumour removed - reasoning tests good, decision making bad. CE was intact but not wholly.

Question 25

Existence of CE from brains scans

Answer 25

Braver et al. Activity in prefrontal cortex increased as tasks became harder. = Demands On CE increase, has to work harder to fulfil its function. So supports WMM

Question 26

Explanations of forgetting intereference theory

Answer 26

Interference theory: forgetting occurs cuz memories interfere with and disrupt one another. This conflict makes it harder to locate them. More likely to happen with similar info.

Question 27

Proactive interference

Answer 27

Earlier disrupts new.

Question 28

Retroactive interference

Answer 28

New intereferes with old.

Question 29

Research for interference theory

Answer 29

McGeoch and McDonald- list 1 words, list 2 unrelated digits or related synonyms. Ps who learnt digits after had les impairment when recalling list 1. Similar info makes interefenfed happen

Question 30

Interference theory research lacks ecological val.

Answer 30

Take place in labs, word lists which u don’t do everyday and artificial env. So can’t gwnreelaise

Question 31

Interference theory only affects accessibility so it’s not actually forgetting

Answer 31

Ceraso found if memory was tested after 24 hrs, recognition (accessibility) showed considerable spontaneous recovery, where as recall (availability) stayed the same.

Question 32

Interference not universal cuz its individual differences

Answer 32

Kane and Eagle found individuals with greater WM span was less sucsceptible to proactive interference. Shows individual difference s can make people less affected by intereference. So not generalisable

Question 33

Real world application in advertising of interference theory

Answer 33

danaher et al - recall and recog of ad’s message impaired when ps exposed to 2 adverts within a week. Gives advertiser knowledge to come up with new strategies- do more ads

Question 34

Explanations of forgetting retrieval failure

Answer 34

Forgetting due to lack of accessibility If there are no retrieval cues memories can’t be recalled. Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Question 35

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 35

Cues will help recall info if it’s present at learning and retrieval If cues are not present for retrieval forgetting will happen

Question 36

Meaningful cues

Answer 36

Linked to material-to be remembered in a meaningful way like mnemonics

Question 37

Contextual cues

Answer 37

Something in env. During learning | Objects in room, smell

Question 38

State cues

Answer 38

The way we felt durin learning | Calm during revision

Question 39

Context dependent forgetting research

Answer 39

Godden and Baddeley 1975 : deep sea divers learnt list of words in either land or water and recalled in either land or water Recalled in different context performed more than 30% worse than those who recalled In same context.

Question 40

State dependent forgetting research

Answer 40

Goodwin et al 1969- makes asked remember list of words either drunk or sober. 24 hrs later recalle drunk or sober. Those who learned and recalled on the same state performed better despite being drunk

Question 41

Retrieval failure theory - empirical evidence uses extreme conditions.

Answer 41

Underwater, real life we rarely have to recall in extreme conditions so it’s difficult to generalise and lacks ecological validity

Question 42

Police Cognitive Interview using Retrieval failure theory

Answer 42

Introducing state and contextual cues remind eye witness about crimes has helped delveip CI methods. Using contextual reinstatement.

Question 43

Retrieval failure theory not effective in real situations

Answer 43

Word lists used in research, but in real life we learn about more complex associations that are less easily triggered by cues. Context effects are largely eliminated when learning meaningful material. So RFT is reductionist

Question 44

RFT explainers interference theory :)

Answer 44

Tulving and Psotka. Interference actually due to absence of cues. In cued recall despite how many lists learnt, ps remembered about 70% or words. This shows info is always there and available but can’t be retrieved without cues.

Question 45

Eye witness testimony - misleading info 2 things

Answer 45

Leading questions and repeat interviewing

Question 46

Leading questions 2 explanations

Answer 46

Wording of question affects EWT. Substitution explanation says wording changes ps memory of event. Response bias exp. says wording doesn’t have effect on memory, just influence persons decision to answer

Question 47

Post event discussion 2 ways

Answer 47

Repeat interviewing- every time an EW is interviewed, Bigger chance that comments from interviewed can be incorporated into recollections of events Conformity effect - happens when EW reach consensus about what happened

Question 48

Research into misleading info affecting memory

Answer 48

After watching a film of car crash, Asked question about the speed of the car, changing the verb - smashed or hit. 1 week later were asked if there was broken glass in the crash (there wasn’t). Significantly more people said glass broke when verb was smashed. SHOWS MEMORY CHANGE cuz most people remembered correctly even. 1 week after.

Question 49

Lotus and Palmer lacks ecological validity

Answer 49

Ps watched videos of crash, some of which were staged so it is artificial. This means they didn’t feel shock anxiety or stress which u would in real life. So findings can’t be generalised .

Question 50

Misleading info subject to individual differences and have bigger impact on children

Answer 50

Children and others who lack mental capacity might think if they agree to the question they will please the interviewer and other people around them. This is not accurate

Question 51

Research into misleading info has had massive impact on justice system

Answer 51

Criminal justice system relies heavily on EWT. Psych research helped warn the system of problems with EWT e.g. misleading qs. Recent DNA exoneration cases has showed mistaken EW identification is largest factor to conviction of innocent peps.

Question 52

Ethical implications stating EW’S are unreliable

Answer 52

Educating juries on inaccuracies of EWT may lead to distrust towards victims of crimes who r actually saying the truth. So may not only have neg. impact on victims but also lead to guilty people going free. So info must be used within caution cuz it’s socially sensitive.

Question 53

Case study evidence on impact of misleading info JESS DESKOVIC

Answer 53

Detectives interrogated him and because he failed the polygraph exam, one detective accused him of failing the test and said certain he was the criminal of the rape of his classmate. This is when Jess said he realised he was responsible 3 weeks ago. This is how leading Qs and repeat interviewing can change memories or have response bias. He was released 16 years after thanks to dna twsting

Question 54

Anxiety has negative effect on EWT

Answer 54

weapon focus effect - weapon in criminals hand distracts attention from the features cuz of anxiety created so decreases accuracy.

Question 55

Anxiety has positive effect on EWT

Answer 55

fight or flight - evolutionary response to threat to prepare body for defending or atacking or run away. Release of adrenaline makes pupils dilate to get more light in and lay more attention. So it increases our alertness. So improves memories.

Question 56

Research for WFA Johnson and Scott

Answer 56

told ps they were going to take part in lab study while in waiting room they hear argument in next room. 1. Low anxiety - man walked out with greasy hands and pen 2. High anxiety - man rushes out with bloody hands and knife Asked to pick out man from 50 photos. Low anxiety was 49% accuracy, high was 33%.

Question 57

Fight or flight resrear h

Answer 57

Yuille and cutshall. Real life gun shooting in gun shop. 13 participated out of 21 witnesses. Rated how stressed they were at the time. Most stressed = 88% accuracy, less stressed=75% accuracy

Question 58

Evaluation of anxiety HEYEPV

Answer 58

``` High ecological validity J+S Ethical issues Yuille and cutshall case study Emotional sensitivity Pickel Violent nature ```

Question 59

Emotional sensory Anxiety :(

Answer 59

Bothwell et al. Ps assessed for neuroticism - emotionally sensitive - and either labelled neurotic or stable. Stable ps showed rising levels of accuracy as stress increased but opposite for neurotic ps.

Question 60

EWT actually affected by violent nature of crime

Answer 60

Halford and Milne found victims of violent crimes were more accurate in recall of crime scene than non violent crimes. Shows there is no simple rule about effect of anisety on accuracy of EWT.

Question 61

Cognitive interview

Answer 61

``` Retrieve more accurate memories Report everything Reinstate context Reverse order Change perspective ```

Question 62

Report everything

Answer 62

Every single detail even if it appears irrelevant or if it’s only a partial memory. Improves accuracy cuz there’s no leading Qs so memory not interfered with, avoids substitution exp. doesn’t make them anxious. Can use words used by witness later so no false memories implanted

Question 63

Reinstate context

Answer 63

Related to context and state dependent forgetting. Witness imagine the env and emotions. These cues can overcome context and state forgetting and trigger memories, in vivo.

Question 64

Reverse the order

Answer 64

Events should be recalled in different chronological order to original sequence. Like backwards. This prevents schemas from interrupting memories, focuses on other things not just tell a story

Question 65

Change perspective

Answer 65

Ask witnes to recall incident from others perspective | Can Get extra details they hadn’t thought of before and breaks up schemas.

Question 66

:) CI support plus counter

Answer 66

Köhnken et al. Meta analysis from 50 studies showed CI provides an 81% increase in correct info. Shows there are real practical benefits to Police using CI. HOWEVER increase in 61% were incorrect compared to standard interview.

Question 67

Some elements of CI are more valuable :(

Answer 67

Milne and bull found effectiveness of CI may be due to individual elements not whole things. Report everything and reinstate context were most useful. Therefore were over complicated it.

Question 68

Time consuming CI :(

Answer 68

Cuz its thorough and technical. Police no time to do prophet which could lead to entirely different EWT. Also requires specialist training which is costly and tike consuming. So CI Often inconvenient exp if there r pressures to come up iwht conclusion quickly.

Question 69

CI good technique for older people :)

Answer 69

Many old ppl may doubt their memory due to negative stereotypes makes them overly cautious about providing details. Can be overcome by CI cuz it aims to put EW at ease and encourages them to give every detail.