memory Flashcards
(74 cards)
1
Q
What is the capacity of LTM?
A
LTM capacity- potentially infinite
2
Q
What is the capacity of STM? What did Miller suggest?
A
STM capacity- limited
Miller suggested that the capacity of STM is about 7 items (+/- 2)
3
Q
How did Jacobs measure STM capacity? (3 key steps)
A
Jacobs developed the digit span technique:
- Researcher says series of digits
- Ppt recalls them in correct order, -Then number of digits researcher said increased until the ppt couldn’t recall them correctly
4
Q
What were Jacobs’ findings? (Digit span- STM capacity)
A
- Means span for digits: 9.3 items
- Means span for letters: 7.3 items
5
Q
What did Miller conclude about STM capacity? (3)
A
- 7 (+/-2)
- Noticed people could recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters
- ‘Chunking’ - grouping digits/letters into chunks allows the STM to retain more info (capacity)
6
Q
What is the duration of STM?
A
STM duration- doesn’t last long unless you repeat items over and over
7
Q
What is the duration of LTM?
A
LTM duration- potentially lasts forever
8
Q
Petersons Duration of STM:
Procedure (3 steps)
A
Procedure:
- 24 ppt, each trial each ppt given a consonant syllable
- Asked to recall it after intervals ranging from 3-18s
- During intervals ppt had to count backwards from a 3 digit number- prevent rehearsal
9
Q
Petersons Duration of STM:
Findings (3) and Conclusion
A
Findings: - Avg. 90% correct after 3s - 20% after 9s - 3% after 18s Conclusion - STM has a very short duration
10
Q
Bahrick Duration of LTM:
Procedure (3)
A
Procedure:
- tested 44 ppt of ages 17-74 on their memory of their classmates
- Showed ppt a set of yearbook photos and a list of names, some were old school friends
- Asked ppt to identify which ones were old school friends
11
Q
Bahrick Duration of LTM:
Findings (3) and Conclusion
A
Findings:
- Left highschool in the last 15 years- identified 90% of faces and names
- Left in last 45- 80% of names and 70% of faces
- Free recall- ab. 60% accurate after 45 years- sugg memories are long-lasting
12
Q
What are the 3 ways memories can be encoded?
A
- Acoustically
- Visually
- Semantically
13
Q
Baddeley Memory Coding:
Aim
A
Aim- see influence of acoustic and sematic similarities on STM and LTM
14
Q
Baddeley Memory Coding:
Procedure (2 steps- one outlines 4 groups)
A
Procedure-
Gp 1- asked to remember semantically similar words ( cat, mat)
Gp 2- acoustically dissimilar words (pit, cow)
Gp 3- semantically similar (large, big)
Gp 4- semantically dissimilar (pet, hot)
2. Ppt asked to recall words in correct order
15
Q
Baddeley Memory Coding:
Findings (2)
A
Findings-
- When ppt asked to recall immediately people had more trouble remembering acoustically similar words
- When asked to recall after 20mins, people did worse in remembering semantically similar words
16
Q
Baddeley Memory Coding:
Conclusion
A
Conclusion- STM is encoded acoustically, LTM encoded semantically
17
Q
State 2 limitations about the STM and LTM research (Baddeley, Jacobs, Miller, Peterson and Peterson, Bahrick)
A
2 limitations:
- Jacobs’ study conducted long time ago- affects validity, early research lack control of extraneous variables?
- Baddeley didn’t use meaningful material- lacks ecological validity and application?
18
Q
State a strength about the STM and LTM research (Baddeley, Jacobs, Miller, Peterson and Peterson, Bahrick)
A
Strength:
- Bahrick used meaningful material- high external validity (but real-life research= lack of confounding variables control?)
19
Q
Who created the Multi-Store Model?
A
Atkinson and Shrifin- identified that there are 3 memory stores linked together by processes that transfer info from one store to the next
20
Q
Draw the multi-store model
A
(sheet)
21
Q
Sensory Register (3)
A
Sensory Register
- info held at each of the senses- corresponding areas of brain
- capacity large
- constantly receiving info- only held for milliseconds
22
Q
Maintenance Rehearsal (MSM)
A
Maintenance Rehearsal
- repeat info to keep in our STM e.g remembering drinks at a bar
23
Q
Retrieval/ Remembering (MSM)
A
Retrieval/Remembering (as part of MSM)
- if we need to recall info it is transferred from our LTM to STM to use
24
Q
Rehearsal (MSM)
A
Rehearsal (as part of MSM)
- if info rehearsed enough it will transfer from STM to LTM- stored until we need to remember the info
25
3 types of LTM
LTM types:
- Procedural memory
- Episodic memory
- Semantic memory
26
(Types of LTM) Procedural Memory (3)
Procedural Memory
- Stores memories for actions or skills e.g driving a car
- Recall occurs without awareness or effort
- Hard to explain why we can do them- recall without consciousness awareness
27
(Types of LTM) Semantic Memory (2)
Semantic Memory
- Stores knowledge of world e.g meaning of words
- Not time stamped
28
(Types of LTM) Episodic Memory (3)
Episodic Memory
- Stores events from our daily lives (e.g dinner yesterday)
- Complex, time-stamped, and involve several elements
- Have to make a conscious effort to recall them
29
State 3 strengths of the types of LTM
Strengths of LTM types
- Brain scan studies show that there are different LTM stores
- LTM stores have real-life applications
- Research- clinical-based evidence- HM and Clive Wearing- but it's difficult to generalise from these as these cases often lack control of variables
30
Who created the Working Memory Model?
WMM- Baddeley and Hitch- proposed a model that had a number of stores that could have several pieces of info being worked on
31
Draw the WMM
(Sheet)
32
Central Executive (WMM) (4)
Central Executive:
- Direct attention to particular tasks- 3 STM slave systems allocated to tasks
- Data arrives through senses
- Limited capacity
- Selectively attends to specific data- balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided e.g talking and driving
33
Phonological Loop (WMM) (3)
Phonological Loop:
- Deals with auditory info and order
- Limited capacity- 2s
- PL divided into Phonological store (inner ear- stores and holds words heard) and an Articulatory Process (inner voice- words silently rehearsed and repeated)
34
Episodic Buffer (WMM) (3)
Episodic Buffer:
- Temporarily holds info that relates to visual and acoustic info and sends it to LTM
- Records events in order
35
Visuospatial Sketchpad (WMM)
Visuospatial Sketchpad:
- Visual and spacial info- helps us navigate and interact with environment
- Logre suggested it was divided into- visual cache (stores visual info), inner scribe (spatial relationships between objects)
36
What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?
Explanations for forgetting:
- Interference theory
- Retrieval failure
37
Define interference
Interference- when 2 pieces of info conflict resulting in forgetting one or both
38
Does interference occur in the LTM or STM?
LTM- forgetting occurs in the LTM because we can't access memories even though they're available
(Interference between memories makes it harder for us to locate them)
39
State the 2 types of interference:
Types of interference:
- Proactive interference- past learning interfers with current learning (e.g putting an old password on a computer)
- Retroactive interference- when current learning interfers with past learning (e.g teacher can't remember name of new students)
40
Why is interference worse when memories are similar?
Effects of similarity:
- PI prev stored info makes new info more hard to store
- RI new info overwrites prev memories which are similar
41
Who investigated the effects of similarity on interference?
Effects of similarity- McGeoch and McDonald
42
Effects of similarity- McGeoch and McDonald Procedure (2 steps- 6 groups)
Procedure:
1. Ppt asked to learn a list of words perfectly
2. Ppt then given a new list to learn- new material varied in how similar it was to previous- group 1 synonyms, group 2 antonyms, group 3 unrelated, group 4 nonsense syllables, group 5 numbers, group 6 had no new list
43
Effects of similarity- McGeoch and McDonald Findings and Conclusions
Findings:
- Most similar material (synonyms) had worst recall
- Groups with very different recall did much better
Conclusion- shows that interference is strongest when memories are similar
44
State two limitations of the Interference Theory
Limitations of the Interference Theory
- Interference only explains some instances of forgetting (i.e when memories are similar) - Anderson states there must be more explanations
- A lot of research uses artificial stimuli (e.g McGeoch and McDonald)- lacks external validity and real-life application (but there's also a lot of real-life research e.g Barwick yearbook experiment also applied here)
45
State a strength of the Interference Theory
Strength of the Interference Theory
- Research often conducted through lab studies- high control of extraneous variables- high internal validity (low external validity?)
46
What is retrieval failure?
Retrieval failure- forgetting due to being unable to access a memory- need cues to serve as a reminder of the memory
47
Who suggested the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
ESP- Tulving
48
What is the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
ESP- Tulving suggested that cues help retrieval if the same cues were present at encoding and retrieval - the closer the cue to original cue, the better it works
49
What are the 3 types of cues that the ESP talks of?
Types of cues:
- cues linked to material in a meaningful way e.g 'STM'
Cues can be linked in a non-meaningful way:
- Context-dependent forgetting- memory retrieval dependent on external/environmental cue e.g weather
- State-dependent forgetting- memory retrieval dependent on internal cue/state of mind e.g being drunk
50
Carter and Cassady state-dependent forgetting research: Procedure (3 steps)
Procedure:
1. Ppt given anti-histmane drugs which causes slight drowsiness (creating an internal psychological state)
2. Ppt had to learn a list of words and then recall
3. Group 1- learn and recall on drug, group 2- learn on drug, recall off drug, group 3- learn off drug, recall on drug, group 4- learn and recall off drug
51
Carter and Cassady state-dependent forgetting research: Findings (1) and Conclusion
Findings:
- Mismatch conditions - performance significantly worse
Conclusion: when cues are absent there is more forgetting and internal cues have an impact on this too
52
State 2 strengths of retrieval failure (as an explanation of forgetting)
Retrieval Failure Strengths:
- Credibility- wide range of supporting research e.g Carter and Cassady
- Practical Application- explains daily occurrences e.g when a smell triggers a memory (smell present at time)
53
State a weakness of retrieval failure (as an explanation of forgetting)
Retrieval Failure Weakness:
| - Alternative Explanation: Interference Theory (or does this support retrieval failure?)
54
What are the 3 things that impact eye-witness testimony (EWT)?
EWT:
- Misleading info
- Anxiety
- Cognitive Interview
55
Loftus and Palmer Leading Questions: Procedure (4 steps)
Procedure:
1. 45 ppt (students) watched film clips of car accidents
2. Ppt then answered questions about the clips and the car speeds
3. Critical question- 'About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other'
4. Ppt divided into 5 groups- each given a different verb in the critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, or smashed
56
Loftus and Palmer Leading Questions: Findings (2) and Conclusions
Findings:
- verb 'contacted' produced a mean estimated speed of 31.8mph
- verb 'smashed' the mean was 40.5mph
Conclusion: The verb in the leading question biased eyewitness recall of an event- verb influenced how ppt perceived the crash
57
What's post-event discussion? (PED)
Post-event discussion is when co-witnesses discuss the crime with each other.
58
What two risks does PED pose?
PED leads to:
- Memory contamination: mixing of info- contaminating testimonies
- Memory conformity: witnesses go along with each other- social approval and believe other witnesses are right
59
Gabbert post-event discussion: Procedure (2 steps)
Procedure:
1. Paired ppt watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different perspectives so they both saw unique items
2. Pairs discussed what they had seen on video before individually completing a test of recall
60
Gabbert post-event discussion: Findings (2) and Conclusion
Findings:
- 71% of the witnesses in PED group recalled information they had not actually seen and 60% said that the girl was guilty, despite the fact they had not seen her commit a crime
- In control group (no discussion)- there were no errors
Conclusion: People influenced by other witnesses information- causes memory contamination
61
What are the 2 experiments which investigate the impact of anxiety on EWT?
Johnson and Scott (Anxiety has a negative impact)
| Yullie and Cutshall (Anxiety has a positive impact)
62
Johnson and Scott - Impact of anxiety on EWT: Procedure (4 steps)
Procedure:
1. Led ppt to believe that they were taking part in a lab study
2. While in the waiting room, ppt hear ab argument in the next room
3. Low-anxiety condition- man walked through waiting area carrying a pen and grease on his hands. High-anxiety condition- sound of breaking glass, man walked out holding a paper-knife covered in blood
4. Ppt later asked to pick the man out of set of 50 photos
63
Johnson and Scott - Impact of anxiety on EWT: Findings (2) and Conclusion
Findings:
- 49% of ppt in low-anxiety condition identified correctly
- 31% in high anxiety condition
Conclusion: Tunnel theory of memory- witness' attention draws on weapon (weapon focus) causing anxiety- this decreases reliability of EWT recall
64
Yullie and Cutshall - Impact of anxiety on EWT: Procedure (3 steps)
Procedure:
1. (Real-life crime) Shop owner shot a thief dead- 21 witnesses and 13 agreed to take part
2. Interviews 4-5 months after were compared to real police interviews made at time of crime
3. Witnesses asked to rate how stressed they felt at time of crime and if they had any emotional issues since event e.g sleeplessness
65
Yullie and Cutshall - Impact of anxiety on EWT: Findings
Findings: (accuracy measured by number of details reported in each account)
- ppt who reported highest levels of stress where most accurate- 88% vs 75% for less stressed
66
How was the contradictory research on anxiety in EWT resolved? (Yullie and Cutshall's findings vs Jonhson and Scott's findings)
Deffenbacher conducted a series of studies and found that the Yerkes- Dodson Law could be applied to make sense of these findings
67
Who developed the cognitive interview?
Fisher and Geiselman- method of improving retrieval and reliability of eye witness accounts
68
What is the cognitive interview?
Cognitive interview- questioning technique used by police to enhance retrieval of info about a crime scene from eyewitness and victims' memory
69
What are the 5 different techniques of the cognitive interview?
Cognitive interview:
- Mental reinstatement of environmental and personal contexts (trigger context-dependent memories)
- Different perspectives (prevents influence of expectations and schema on recall)
- Reverse order (harder to lie)
- In-depth reporting (trivial facts may trigger memories)
- Enhanced cognitive interview
70
Who developed the enhanced cognitive interview?
CI- Fisher developed additional elements of the CI
71
What's the enhanced cognitive interview?
CI- focus on interaction (e.g when to make eye contact) and includes reducing eyewitness' anxiety, minimising distractions, and asking open-ended questions
72
Geiselman Cognitive Interview: Aim
Aim: investigate effectiveness of cognitive interview compared to the standard interview
73
Geiselman Cognitive Interview: Procedure (3 Steps)
Procedure:
1. Ppt watched clip of violent crime
2. After 48hrs were interviewed by policemen using one of three methods- cognitive interview, standard interview, or hypnosis interview
3. Number of facts that were accurately recalled and avg. no errors recorded
74
Geiselman Cognitive Interview: Findings (3)
Findings:
| - avg number of accurately recalled for cognitive interview was 41.2, hypnosis was 38.0 and standard was 29.4
