Memory - Explanations For Forgetting Flashcards
(46 cards)
Interference theory
Suggests we forget because long-term memories become confused/disrupted by other information while it is coded.
Proactive interference
When old information disrupts new. Interference works forward in time—older stored info interferes with recalling newer info.
Retroactive interference
When new information disrupts old. Interference works backward in time—newer info being stored interferes with recall of older info.
Similarity in interference
Interference is more likely when the two pieces of information are similar due to response competition.
Time sensitivity in interference
Interference is less likely when there is a large gap between the instances of learning.
Schmidt et al (2000) — Procedure
Investigated retroactive interference using memory of childhood street names. 11–79 year olds were sent a questionnaire with a map of their old school area but no street names.
It was found that the more people had moved house, the fewer street names they recalled. This negative correlation suggests retroactive interference — newer memories (new street names) interfere with older ones.
Greenberg & Underwood (1950) — Procedure
Asked participants to learn 10 paired word lists. After a 48-hour gap, participants were tested on recall. This was repeated four times.
It was found that correct recall declined the more lists were learned. This provides evidence for proactive interference — earlier lists interfered with later learning.
Cue-dependent forgetting
Occurs when information is in LTM but cannot be accessed due to absence of appropriate cues (encoding specificity principle).
Context-dependent cues
Aspects of the external environment (e.g. sights, sounds) act as retrieval cues. If the learning and recall environments differ, forgetting may occur due to lack of environmental cues.
Godden & Baddeley (1975) — Procedure
Divers learned word lists on land or underwater, then were tested either in the same or a different environment.
Recall was better when the learning and recall environments matched (e.g. underwater/underwater). This supports context-dependent forgetting — same context provides retrieval cues.
State-dependent cues
Internal states (e.g. emotions, drugs, arousal) act as cues. Forgetting occurs when learning and recall states differ.
Overton (1972) — Procedure
Participants learned material either drunk or sober and were later tested in either the same or different state.
Recall was best when internal state matched at learning and recall (e.g. drunk–drunk). Supports state-dependent forgetting — matching internal state aids recall.
Category/Organisational cues
Cues relating to the structure or organisation of memory (e.g. word categories) help retrieval. Fewer associations per cue = more effective retrieval.
Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) — Procedure
Participants learned 48 words from 12 categories. They were tested using either free recall or cued recall (category labels).
Recall was significantly higher with cues. This suggests organisational cues help retrieval and their absence causes forgetting.
Practical application of forgetting research
Research into forgetting has practical uses like improving revision strategies (e.g. using cues) and in police techniques such as the cognitive interview.
Limitation of cue/interference theories
These may only explain temporary forgetting, not permanent loss of info. Forgetting might be due to over-writing or inaccessible storage.
Time sensitivity & limitation
Interference only occurs when info is similar and learned close together. This limits its ability to explain forgetting in daily life (e.g. birthdays).
Artificiality of evidence for interference
Most research uses lab tasks (e.g. word lists), which lack ecological validity. Therefore, real-life forgetting may not be explained as well by interference theory.
What is Bartlett’s (1932) theory on Reconstructive Memory?
Bartlett argued that memories are not accurate ‘snapshots’ of events but are instead ‘reconstructions’ influenced by personal attitudes and stereotypes.
What is a Schema?
Schemas are packages of information about people and objects in the world, serving as mental shortcuts that influence memory recall.
What is Reconstructive Memory?
Reconstructive memory suggests that memory is not an accurate recording of events but is reconstructed during recall, which may lead to errors.
What are Leading Questions?
Leading questions imply a particular answer and can influence memory recall, potentially causing changes due to substitution bias or response bias.
What is Post-event contamination/discussion?
This occurs when one witness’s recall alters another witness’s accuracy, often due to memory conformity for social approval.
What was the method of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) Study 1?
Participants (N = 45) watched traffic accident clips and were asked a leading question with varying verbs about speed.
