Memory (Paper 1) ✓ Flashcards
Friday 16th May - 9:15 → 11:15
1
Q
Definition of coding
A
To enter memory, information has to be ‘written’ in a particular format or code.
2
Q
Definition of capacity
A
Refers to the amount of storage space available in memory.
3
Q
Definition of duration
A
How long information lasts before it is no longer available i.e. before it is forgotten
4
Q
3x features used when describing memory
A
- Coding
- Capacity
- Duration
5
Q
What does the multistore model of memory suggest
A
Information flows through 3 memory stores - sensory register, short term memory, long term memory
At any point the information can be lost or forgotten
6
Q
3x assumptions made by the multistore model of memory
A
- There are 3 separate stores (Sensory register, STM, LTM)
- These stores are unitary (they cannot be subdivided)
- Information is transferred through rehearsal
7
Q
Role of the sensory register
A
1.Consists if several stores for each of our senses, this means that the information can be coded in the form of the incoming information
8
Q
STM coding, capacity, duration
A
- Acoustic
- 5-9 items
- 30 seconds without rehearsal
9
Q
LTM coding, capacity, duration
A
- Semantic
- Unlimited
- Decades
10
Q
Research into the idea that memory comprises of separate stores
A
Case study of HM:
- HM underwent brain surgery to remove his hippocampus in order to control epilepsy.
- After surgery, his memory was impaired
- He was no longer able to produce new LTMs but STM was unaffected
11
Q
Aim of sperling
A
To investigate the capacity and duration of the iconic store
12
Q
method of sperling
A
- Used a tachistoscope to present a grid of 12 symbols to ppts (1/20 second)
- Sounded a high, medium, or low tone
- ppts had to recall high, medium or low row of letters
13
Q
Findings of sperling
A
-As long as the tone sounded within 1/4 of a second of the presentation, ppts could recall 3/4 symbols from any row
14
Q
Aim of peterson and peterson
A
To investigate duration of STM
15
Q
method of peterson and peterson
A
- participants were presented with nonsense trigrams and asked to remember them
- ppts had to count aloud backwards in 3s for intervals of 3
- They then had to recall the trigrams
16
Q
findings of peterson and peterson
A
3 second interval - 80% correctly recalled
9 second interval - 30% correctly recalled
18 second interval - 10% correctly recalled
17
Q
aim of jacobs
A
to investigate the capacity of STM
18
Q
method of jacobs
A
- digits or letters were presented to ppts at half second intervals
- They had to repeat the list back in the correct order
- List started with 3 items and increased until ppts could no longer recall them
19
Q
findings of jacobs
A
ppts were able, on average, to hold between 5 and 9 items
20
Q
aims of conrad
A
to investigate coding in STM
21
Q
method of conrad
A
- ppts briefly shown a series of random sequences of 6 consonants in rapid succession
- Asked to write down the letters in correct order
- Letters were either acoustically similar or dissimilar
22
Q
findings of conrad
A
ppts found it more difficult to recall acoustically similar sounding sequences than dissimilar ones
23
Q
aim of bahrick
A
to investigate the duration of LTM
24
Q
method of bahrick
A
- 329 graduates and their yearbooks were traced
- ppts aged 17- 74 and the time since their graduation varied from weeks to 57 years
- researchers selected 130 pictures from each yearbook
- conditions were: free recall of names, recognition of names, matching names to pictures, naming pictures
25
findings of bahrick
- free recall of names: 50% accuracy at 3 months/ 20% after 40 years
- Recognition: 85-90% accuracy
- Naming pictures - 70% accuracy at 3 months/ 60% after 15 years/ 20% after 40 years
26
aim of baddeley
to investigate coding in LTM
27
method of baddeley
- 70 young servicemen, divided into 4 different groups
- briefly presented with the same 5 words but order changed each time
- They had to write down the words in the correct order
28
Findings of baddeley
- there was no difference in recall between acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar words
- there was a difference in recall between semantically similar words (55%) and semantically dissimilar words (85%)
29
2+/2- Multistore model of memory
+ great deal of supporting evidence
+ HM underwent brain surgery to remove hippocampus. He wasn't able to produce new long term memories but his short term memory was unaffected
- Could be considered too simplistic
- Rehearsal is not always required to transfer information into LTM
30
what is the working memory model concerned with
The part of memory that is active when we are dealing with a complex task which requires us to store information as we go along.
31
Components of WMM
Central Executive
Phonological loop ---> Articulatory control process and phonological store
Episodic Buffer
Visuo spatial sketchpad ---> Visual cache and inner scribe
32
Role of central executive
to pay attention to tasks that need to be completed and allocate the working memory's resources to complete these tasks
33
Coding and capacity of central executive
Coding: mainly acoustic or visual
Capacity: very limited (cannot attend to many things at once)
34
Role of phonological loop
a slave system that is concerned with auditory and speech based information
35
Role of subdivisions of phonological loop
Phonological store: holds words that are heard for a brief period of time
Articulatory rehearsal system: allows maintenance rehearsal of words that are heard
36
Coding and Capacity of phonological loop
Coding is acoustic
Capacity is limited
Duration: can hold 2 second's worth of what you say
37
Role of visuo spatial sketchpad
a slave system which is responsible for setting up and manipulating mental images
38
Role of subdivisions of visuo spatial sketchpad
Visual cache: stores and processes information associated with objects/features (e.g. shape/colour)
Inner scribe: stores and processes information about the arrangement of objects in the visual field
39
Coding and capacity of visuo spatial sketchpad
coding is visual
capacity is about 3 or 4 objects
40
Role of the episodic buffer
combines information processed by the other slave systems and also interacts with the LTM
a general store used to hold any type of information
41
Coding and capacity of episodic buffer
Coding is mainly acoustic or visual
capacity is about 4 chunks of information
42
Aim of robbins et al
to investigate the different components of the WMM using the dual task technique
43
Method of Robins et al
- 12 chess players were given 3 mins to choose their next move while also doing one of:
1. repeatedly saying see saw (phonological loop)
2. Making up meaningless letter sequences (central executive)
3. Pressing keys in a clockwise direction (visuo spatial sketchpad)
44
Findings of robbins et al
1. Repeatedly saying see saw had little effect on quality of chess moves
2. Making up meaningless letter sequences and key pressing in a clockwise direction led to poorer quality moves chosen
45
Conclusion of Robbins et al
the central executive and visuo spatial sketchpad are involved in choosing chess moves but the phonological loop is not
46
2+/2- working memory model
+ supporting evidence from Robbins
+ Brain imaging studies: wernicke's area for phonological store and broca's area for articulatory rehearsal system
- difficult to generalise findings from brain damaged patients to people without brain injury
- Description of central executive and its functions are too vague
47
Role of episodic memory
The ability to recall events from our lives
You make a conscious effort to recall these (explicit or declarative)
Personal experiences --> Specific details of the event/ context/ emotion --> Stored in hippocampus
48
Research into episodic memory
Clive wearing contracted a virus that affected his hippocampus. He can still play the piano but he has problems recalling episodic memories
49
Role of semantic memory
Refers to knowledge about the world
Declarative as conscious effort must be made to recall it
Knowledge about the world which is shared with everyone --> stored in temporal/ frontal lobes
50
Research into semantic memory
Herlitz et al found no difference between 1000 swedish males and females in terms of semantic memory ability
51
Role of procedural memory
Concerned with skills - knowing how to do something
Memory for skills --> often become automatic
Referred to as implicit as you do not have to make a conscious effort to recall --> stored in cerebellum/ motor cortex
52
Research into procedural memory
Smith found that disrupting REM sleep had a negative impact on procedural memory - when retested on the task animals did not perform as well as a control group who were allowed to sleep without disruption
53
3+/2- types of LTM
+ Sup ev from brain scans which reveals that different parts of the brain are active when different LTM tasks are performed
+ Vicari et al: 8 year old girl found it difficult to create new episodic memories but was still able to make new semantic memories following the removal of a tumour
+ Prac app: old people with cognitive impairment could be taught to have improved episodic memories
- There may only be 2 types of LTM as researchers have challenged the distinction between episodic and semantic
- Drawing conclusions from case studies with brain damaged patients is problematic
54
Definition of interference
Forgetting which occurs because one memory blocks another. This causes a memory to be distorted or forgotten. This occurs when content is very similar.
55
Proactive vs retroactive interference
Proactive - when an older memory interferes with a newer one and newer information is forgotten
Retroactive - when a newer memory interferes with an older one and older information is forgotten
56
Underwood's research into proactive interference
Found that when ppts were asked to learn lists of unrelated words, their overall recall of new information declines with each successive list learned
- 10 or more lists --> after 24 hours recalled 20% of last list they ad learned
- one list --> after 24 hours recalled 70% of that list
57
Mcgeoch and Mcdonald's research into retroactive interference
Found that the accuracy of recalling list A depended on the content of list B - retroactive interference is strongest when content to be learned is very similar
Group 1: (words in list A and B had the same meaning) - 12% accuracy
Group 2: (List B consisted of nonsense syllables) - 26% accuracy
Group 3: (List B consisted of numbers) - 37% accuracy
58
2+/2- proactive and retroactive interference
+ Supp ev
+ Prac app: marketing strategies that may reduce interference
- Studies lack ecological validity as ppts would not have to remember nonsense strings of words in real life
- Interference cannot explain all forgetting as it only occurs when content is very similar
59
Definition of retrieval failure due to absence of cues
Memories cannot be recalled because the correct cues are not present. A cue is something that acts as a reminder.
- Retrieval cues can be meaningfully linked to the content to be remembered (e.g. using sub headings when remembering a list of words)
- Retrieval cues can not be meaningfully linked to the content to be remembered (e.g. environment can act as a retrieval cue)
60
Context dependant forgetting vs state dependant forgetting
Context: occurs if the relevant environmental variables that were present when learning are absent at recall (external cues)
State: occurs in the absence of physiological or psychological variables that were present during learning (internal cues)
61
Research into meaningful links (Tulving and Pearlstone)
- ppts were asked to learn 48 words belonging to 12 categories
- ppts either had to recall as many words as they could or were given the categories as cues
- 40% of words were recalled in the free recall condition compared with 60% in the cued recall condition
We are more likely to remember memories if information present during learning is also available at the time of recall
62
Research into state dependant cues (goodwin et al)
- Asked male ppts to remember a list of words when they were drunk or sober
-Ppts then had to recall the words 4 hours later when either drunk or sober
-best recall was from ppts who were sober during learning and recall but second best came from ppts who were drunk during learning and recall
63
Research into context dependant cues (Gooden and baddely)
- investigated whether the context in which deep sea divers learned and recalled material affected recall and forgetting
- Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land
-Recall was 40% lower where the contexts of learning and recall did not match
64
2+/2- retrieval failure due to absence of cues
+ supporting evidence
+Practical applications for revision
- Studies are carried out in artificial settings
- In real life exams, material is much more complex and less easily triggered by single cues
65
Definition of eyewitness testimony
an account given by people of an event they have witnessed
66
Definition of misleading information
content given to an eyewitness that can influence their recall of an event
67
Method of loftus and palmer
- carried out a lab experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT
- 45 students were shown 7 films of car accidents
- ppts were asked how fast the cars were travelling when they ... each other
68
Findings of Loftus and Palmer
Smashed - 41mph
Collided- 39mph
Bumped - 38mph
Hit - 34mph
Contacted - 32mph
69
Loftus and palmer follow up experiment
- Students were asked to return to the lab 1 week later
- They were asked whether they'd seen any broken glass
- 32% of smashed group said yes
- 14% of hit group said yes
70
Definition of post event discussion
Conversations held between eyewitnesses or between an eyewitness and another person about the event. This can lead to the memory of an event being altered or contaminated
71
Method of Gabbert et al
- Studied ppts in pairs
- Each ppt watched a video of the same crime but from a different viewpoint
- Both ppt then discusses what they had seen before being tested on their recall
72
Findings of Gabbert et al
- 71% of ppts incorrectly reported aspects of the crime scene they had not seen but was mentioned in the discussion afterwards
73
2+/2- research into misleading information
+ Supporting evidence
+ Practical applications: EWT features heavily within CJS
- Ppts are aware they are taking part in research so may not try as hard to recall information as in a real crime setting
- not all misleading information misleads to the same extent (elderly and very young are most susceptible)
74
Reasons why anxiety has a negative affect on eye witness testimony
- When we are anxious, our body goes into fight or flight. This means that we concentrate on survival rather than complex tasks which may not benefit survival. Memorising an event is a complex task so ability is reduced when we encounter a stressful event. Therefore we recall less information.
- Weapon focus. Seeing a weapon in a perpetrator's hand distracts attention away from everything else. Eyewitnesses then struggle to provide an accurate account of a crime scene other than the weapon.
75
Method of Johnson and scott
- Investigated the idea of weapon focus
- ppts were asked to sit in a waiting room where they heard a heated argument in the next room
- they then saw a man running through the room carrying either a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood
- ppts were then asked to identify the man from a series of 50 photographs
76
Findings of johnson and scott
-Ptts who had witnessed the man holding the pen correctly identified him 49% of the time
- ppts who had witnessed the man with the knife correctly identified him 33% of the time
77
Reason why anxiety has a positive effect on the accuracy of EWT
High anxiety leads to the production of long lasting memories. Evolutionary psychologists suggest it would be advantageous to remember events that are emotionally important so you could identify similar situations in the future and remember how best to react.
78
Method of Yuille and Cutshall
- Police officers took testimonies from eyewitnesses following a real gunfight in Canada
- These were compared with interviews that took place by the researchers 4-5 months later
- Accuracy measured by number of things they could remember
- Anxiety was self report on a scale of 1-7
79
Findings of Yuille and Cutshall
- Those who reported being the most anxious by the event provided the most accurate testimonies
- 88% accuracy for those reporting high levels of anxiety
- 75% accuracy for those reporting low levels of anxiety
80
1+/3- research into anxiety
+ Supporting evidence (Johnson&Scott/ Yuille&Cutshall)
- Reduced accuracy when a weapon is present is not due to anxiety but surprise. Pickel got ppts to watch a thief enter a salon with scissors, a gun, a wallet, a raw chicken. Ppts were poorer at recalling the thief in high surprise conditions
- Ppts may have discussed the event with other following the Canada shooting in Yuille and Cutshall's study
- Laboratory experiments lack ecological validity
81
Yerkes dodson law
-Suggests that as arousal increases it improves performance but only up to an optimal point
- After this, performance declines
- This explains the different findings from the studies
82
4 stages of Geiselman and Fisher's cognitive interview
1. Recreate the context - witness is asked to mentally recreate both the environmental and emotional context of the event
2. Report everything - witness is encouraged to recall anything that comes to mind
3. Recall in different orders - witness is asked to recall the event in different orders
4. Change perspectives - witness is asked to recall the event from different perspectives
83
Which theory underpins the first 2 stages of cognitive interview
- Based on Tulving's encoding specificity theory
- Suggests that as many retrieval cues as possible should be used to aid memory retrieval
84
Which theory underpins the second 2 stages of cognitive interview
- Designed to increase accurate recall because they disrupt an eyewitness' use of previous knowledge and expectations
- They reduce the impact of schema's on recall
- Reduces potential dishonesty as it is harder to produce an untruthful account in reverse
85
* What is Fisher and Geiselman's enhanced cognitive interview
- Seeks to build a trusting relationship between the interviewer and eyewitness therefore improving communication
- No distractions or unnecessary interruptions or questions.
- Flow of information controlled by the witness.
- use of open-ended questions
- Witness to speak slowly.
- Witness reminded not to guess and to reply with ‘don’t know’ when necessary
- Interviewer to help reduce the anxiety of the witness.
86
Method of Geiselman et al's research
- Investigated whether CI improves EWT
- PPts were shown a police training film of a violent crime and were interviewed 48 hours later using either CI or standard interview
87
Findings of Geiselman et al's research
- There were no differences between the two types of interview in the amount of incorrect information recalled
- The standard interview produced the least amount of information overall
- More accurate information was recalled when the CI was used
88
1+/2- cognitive interview
+ Supporting evidence from Geiselman et al
- Kohnken found that eyewitnesses interviews using the ECI recalled 81% more accurate information but also 61% more inaccurate information
- More time consuming and require more training which means that the 'full' versions have likely not been used, reducing the effectiveness of these techniques
