Mental Abilities Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
What are mental abilities
A
Refers to the ability to perform higher order mental processes of reasoning, remembering etc
2
Q
What is the individuals differences approach
A
Approach to explore how and why mental abilities vary across individuals, instead of focussing on what is common to all individuals
3
Q
Why is intelligence broad
A
This is because it is really hard to give it a definition - so it encompasses a large concept as a result
Intelligence can pose a circular logic
4
Q
What is intelligence classified as
A
A construct
5
Q
What is a construct (what are its properties)
A
It is a theoretical (hypothetical) entity
It can’t be directly observed
It is something we infer from observing behaviour
It’s a tool to help us make sense of observable behaviours
It can be expressed in our behaviours
6
Q
How could a construct be measured
A
There should be a test developed to operationalise the construct. This test is meant to look at the observable behaviours that we think is part of a construct
7
Q
What is a latent variable
A
This is the underlying variable which drives behaviours
They are variables which aren’t directly observed but inferred from other variables that are measured
8
Q
What is a manifest variable
A
These are variables which are observable and directly measurable (i.e. a behaviour occurring)
9
Q
What is an implicit theory of intelligence
A
These are the beliefs that we might hold about intelligence, which might not necessarily be true
Informal definitions that we have about intelligence which come from people’s personal experiences and cultural backgrounds
I.e. Do you believe intelligence is something that you could change?
Do you think music is part of intelligence? etc.
10
Q
What is the importance of implicit beliefs of intelligence
A
A belief that intelligence can be changed –> instrumental theorist –> probably better learning outcomes
Opposite for an entity theorist
11
Q
What did Sternberg find when asking general population about what behaviours show intelligence, academic intelligence and evveryday intelligence
A
Verbal intelligence
Problem solving
Practical intelligence
12
Q
What is an explicit theory of intelligence
A
These are theories about intelligence that have scientific backing behind them
Formal, scientific theories developed and validated through research. Aims to provide a more objective and comprehensive understanding of intelligence
13
Q
Can explicit theories of intelligence be challenged
A
Yes. Especially if the measure isn’t good
14
Q
What did Binet try to do in his intellligence test
A
Tried to assign people a ‘mental age’ - different to their chronical age, and indicative of a person’s ‘intelligence’
15
Q
Explain how Binet’s intelligence test worked
A
Used a series of reasoning tasks related to everyday problems of life, but involving basic reasoning processes
He tried to isolate natural ability - thus learned skills weren’t tested
An age level was assigned to each reasoning task. This age level was determined by standardising what the majority of ‘normal’ children can do
16
Q
Explain what mental age was
A
It was a number associated with your performance on a reasoning task.
It was the age assigned to the most difficult task that you could complete
17
Q
What was Binet’s goal
A
Developed the scale to identify children who required remedial education. Tried to identify struggling students and provide them with education to provide an equal playing field
18
Q
What were Binet’s stipulations to the test
A
It was a rough test - It might not be accurate because of its measure of an abstract thing
The scores were a practical device - the scores were meant to be used to identify children who needed extra help; its not something for ranking children’s intelligence.
Low scores shouldn’t be used to mark a child as incapable
19
Q
What did H.H. Goddard do to Binet’s test
A
Decided to use certain scores to rank people as ‘morons’ or ‘idiots’ or assign different labels to people, to determine if they were allowed in America or if they could reproduce
20
Q
What did H.H. Goddard believe
A
Believed that morons would ruin America, and basically tried to stop propagation of morons by controlling who could give birth and also immigration rules
according to Goddard, morons were unfit for society and should be removed from society either through institutionalization, sterilization, or both.
21
Q
What were the classifications of intelligence
A
Idiot - Mental age <2
Imbecile - Mental age 3-7
Feebleminded - Mental age 8-12
Moron - Highest functioning mentally retarted
22
Q
What did Lewis Terman do with Binet’s test
A
Turned it into the Stanford-Binet test which is the normal IQ test we see today, and
23
Q
What was the intelligence quotient (IQ)
A
Introduced in the stanford-binet test
An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence.
24
Q
Explain what a ratio IQ is and how do you calculate it
A
Ratio IQ tries to take into account the actual age of participants. I.e. it tries to recognise that a 5 year old with a mental age of 7 is better than a 10 year old with a mental age of 7
This was calculated through:
(mental age / chronological age) x 100
25
WHat were the problems with ratio IQ
Only works if mental age increases proportionately with chronological age (which wwe know isn't the case)
Difficult to apply to adults - what would an age level typical task be for 43 year olds?, If a 50 year old had a mental age of 25, that means they have an IQ of 50. But this isn't the case,as a mental age of 25 at that age shoudl be considered pretty good
26
How do you calculate a deviation score
Z = (x - mean) / sd
27
What was the raw standard deviation and mean for the IQ test
15 is raw mean
3 is raw standard deviation
28
Explain deviation IQ
Uses raw scores, frequencies, percentile ranks to come to a z-score. This describes how many standard deviations above or below average you are
29
How does deviation IQ work
IQ score is a rank
It sets an IQ of 100 as the average. It then follows that IQ of 15 is 1 s.d. from the mean. All other scores (those <100, and > 100) reflect how far your score deviates from mean
Ultimately gives the appearance of stability in IQ
30
What is the mean and the standard deviation for deviation IQ - which is whats used now
IQ scores mean the same thing - IQ of 100 is the average, and a score of 15 is considered 1 standard deviation
31
What 4 broad categories does the Stanford-Binet Test try to test
Verbal Reasoning
Abstract/Visual intelligence
Quantitative reasoning
Short term memory
32
What were the standard age scores associated with the standford-binet
Mean = 100, SD = 16 (normally its 15)
33
How was the IQ test attempted to be standardised
Provided standard materials to everyone (four printed cards, blocks etc)
Examiner is highly trained - there are recommendations on seating, precise wording, and mode of query for each examiner
ALso, there is the opportunity for an IQ test to be done in a clinical observation
34
Explain some features of the stanford-binet test
Multiple separate tests, each in increasing order of difficulty
To avoid boredom, tests are intermixed
Testing time is 30-90 minutes
Special purpose batteries available for certain populations
GUidelines for translators etc
35
Explain the general test process of the stanford-binet
Establish a basal and ceiling level for each task (usually start at a point suggested by examinee's age)
The basal level = four items passed in a row
The ceiling level = three or more out of four consecutive items are failed (discontinue)
Each item response is then scored (pass/fail)
And there is a scaled score which the pass/fails are then converted to
36
Explain what happens in Verbal reasoning: Picture vocabulary
The examinee must be able to describe the word for a certain picture (given pass/fails)
37
Explain what happens in Verbal reasoning: oral vocabulary
The examinee is given a word, and they must be able to describe it
Age and performance on this test determines entry levels of other tests
38
Explain what happens in abstract/visual reasoning: pattern analysis
Rearranging certain objects (?) to form a pattern (they have to replicate a certain set pattern)
39
Explain what happens in abstract/visual reasoning: copying
They have to copy a certain drawing. Pass.fail allocated by certain criteria
40
Explain what happens in short-term memory: Memory for objects
Shown series of common objects and must remember correct objects in correct order
41
Explain what Raven's progressive Matrices were
Prototypical test of fluid intelligence (broad ability concerned with basic processes that depend only minimally on learning and acculturation)
It is also done in a group setting to help save money (?!)
42
What is the problem with trying to measure intelligence
We don't know its structure - is there only one factor or multiple factors affecting intelligence scores
43
How can we infer structure of intelligence
We try to infer structure by seeing how the scores correlate with one another
If the scores rise and fall together they are likely linked (correlated)
If they rise and fall independently it suggests that it isn't correlated and that they aren't linked
44
Explain what positive, negative and zero correlations look like
Posiitive = one variable increases and the other increases as well
Negative = one variable increases and the other decreases
Zero = no correlation between the variables
45
Explain what a factor analysis of intelligence is
Factor analysis of intelligence is a statistical method used to identify underlying relationships between various cognitive abilities and to determine if they can be grouped into distinct factors. In the context of intelligence research, factor analysis helps psychologists and researchers understand how different types of mental abilities are related and whether they can be represented by broader, underlying "factors" or components of intelligence.
46
WHat were the two observations with a factor analysis of intelligence
All mental abilities correlate with one another to a certain degree (they are all positive)
There seems to be a certain factor which makes the tests 1,2,3 similar between each other, but different to tests 4,5,6 (seems to be multiple clusters of stronger correlations that are only weakly correlated to eaach other - whatever factor is 'causing' the correlations between tests 1-3 is different to the factor 'causing' the correlations between tests 4-6.
47
What was a possible conclusion about the observation that there is something common underlying all the tests
There could be a certain factor which is common for all intelligence tests
I.e. Spearman's 'g' and a positive manifold
48
What was a possible conclusion about the idea of separate factors underlying performance on tests 1-3 vs on tests 4-6
Maybe tests 1-3 can be classified a certain way, which make it different to tests 4-6 (We can actually see that tests 1-3 are verbal, whereas tests 4-6 are non-verbal)
49
What is positive manifold
Positive manifold is a concept observed in intelligence research, particularly in studies that use factor analysis. It refers to the finding that scores on a wide range of cognitive tests tend to correlate positively with each other. In simpler terms, people who perform well on one cognitive task (like a memory test) are also likely to perform well on other cognitive tasks (such as verbal reasoning, mathematical problems, or spatial reasoning). This pervasive pattern of positive correlations among cognitive tests is known as the "positive manifold."
50
What is Spearman's 'g' (single factor)
Suggests that there is one factor underlying all the types of tests in an intelligence test
Represents a general intelligence factor that underlies all cognitive abilities
Positive manifold (test scores are all positively correlated with one another)
Could be related to mental speed, memory capacity etc
51
What were thurnstone's prmary mental abilities (PMA) (Uncorrelated factors)?
What did it describe?
Suggests that primary mental abilities are independent of each other
7 separate areas of mental ability;
Verbal comprehension
Inductive reasoning
Numerical fluency
Word fluency
Spatial ability
Memory
Perceptual speed
52
Explain what happens with correlated factors
Verbal and non-verbal constructs are linked but also separate look at book)
53
What is the Gf-Gc theory
Suggests that there is a general fluid and general crystallised intelligence which makes up our overall intelligence
54
What is General fluid intelligence (Gf)
This is our innate intelligence - our ability to grasp relation between things or deal with novelty
It is culture-free. Or it aims to be culture free but might not be in practice (some cultures are more exposed to greater abstract reasoning --> influence on Gf)
55
What is General crystallised intelligence (Gc)
This refers to acquired knowledge and skills
Requires exposure to culture, formal/informal education
56
What are examples of Gf
Induction
Sequential reasoning
Quantitative reasoning
Temporal tracking
Figural reasoning
57
What are examples of Gc
Verbal comprehension
Cognition of semantic relations
General information
Reading comprehension
Spelling ability
Verbal closure
Phonetic coding
Foreign language aptitude
58
WHat is the evidence that Gf and Gc are different constructs
Both show different developmental trains.
59
What is the progression of Gf and Gc as you get older
Gf rises to young adulthood, and then falls in old age
Gc also rises to young adulthood, and then sort of plateaus (but still increases a bit)
60
What does good psychological assessment depend on
The test needs to be reliable and valid
61
What is reliability? How do we know when something is reliable?
The ability of a test to have similar scores after being repeated.
If a test measures consistent trait in a person, then it should consistently produce the same answer - it shouldn't be influenced by random fluctuations
If a test is reliable, it should be able to distinguish people who differ on the construct effectively
A reliable test should be able to minimise variance due to random error
62
What is the Classical Test theory
X = T + E
Where X is the observed score, and T is the true score and E is the test error
63
How can we estimate the true score
Take multiple measurements - repeat them indefinitely. The long term mean should be the true score.
64
WHat were potential sources of error in an experiment
Test construction (i.e. choice of stimuli, content of test)
Test administration (variability in examiner and examinee)
Errors in scoring (failure to use 'rubric' consistently)
Interpretation subjectivity
65
How can we estimate reliability
Test - retest reliability
Equivalent (alternative)forms of tests
Internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha)
66
What does Test-retest reliability involve? What are the flaws
Involves getting an examinee to do a test and then do the test later on.
However, this causes multiple issues such as the person being able to practice more --> practice effects (overestimates reliability)
There could also be some maturation
We also assume that true score doesn't change, and thus variations in score is reflective of the reliability
67
WHat does Equivalent (alternative) forms of tests involve (how does it estimate reliability)
Involves getting the examinee to do one version of the test, and then doing another version which has the same theme
I.e. show a picture to the individual and spot the difference, but then use a different picture next time the individual is tested
We could also compare two halves of a test (split half correlation); i.e. splitting a test into two halves and measuring how well results from one half correlates with the results from the other half (i.e. split by odd or even questions)
And then compare how the test reliabiltiy goes
68
What is internal consistency (how does it estimate reliability)
If every possible split half correlation was computed, the average is called Cronbach's alpha - reflects extent to which all items measure the same thing
69
What is systematic error variance? How does it influence reliability and validity?
It is when there is a systematic error in how something is measured/observed etc.
I.e. If a set of scales consistently gives readings 1kg too light, or if assessor constatnly gives an extra mark on everyone's assessment
This doesn't reduce the reliability, but it definitely changes the validity
70
What is validity
How well your test measures what you designed it to measure
Also, it is whether the test is used appropriately for its intended use (i.e. if test was developed for adults, it shouldn't be used for children)
71
What are the different ways of classifying validity
Construct
Content
Convergent
Discriminant
72
What happens if we could repeat measurement indefinitely - what is the long term mean?
The true score
73
What is content validity
Whether the contents of the test accurately represent all aspects of the construct ("coverage of domain")
Does the test assess behaviour that is representative of the domain of behaviour that we want to measure
I.e. for an academic test to be considered 'content valid', it shouldn't just test one area of a topic, but multiple, in a fair way
74
What is construct validity
How well defined is a construct measured by a test
I.e. if a test is designed to measure self esteem, the test has to genuinely reflect self esteem rather than another concept like self confidence
75
What is convergent validity
If the construct is related to other theoretically similar constructs / theories --> expect high correlation with similar constructs/tests
76
What is discriminant validity
If the construct isn't related to other constructs --> there shouldn't be a high correlation with the unrrelated constructs
77
What did Sir Francis Galton suggest
Suggests that success in life is due to genetics
78
What was the 'proof' to Galton's claims - what did he conclude (describe the evidence that IQ is substantially heritable)
He found that prominent people normally had prominent relatives (offsprings, cousins, brothers etc)
The closer the kinship, the more likely the relative is also prominent (e.g. 48% sons, 7% grandsons, and 1% great grandsons of prominent people are prominent) --> concluded that "genius and feeble-mindedness" runs in the families
79
What was the alternative explanation to Galton's findings
Another explanation could be those who are more prominent have greater wealth, enabling them to get access to education etc --> warps the finding as it enables those children to have greater opportunities
80
Why did researchers use monozygotic twins to determine heritability of mental abilities
Because MZ twins have the exact same genetic composition --> allows for the control of nature, and thus determines role of nurture.
81
What are three basic studies to look at the relative roles of heredity and environment in determining psychological characteristics
Family resemblance studies
Twin and adoption studies
82
Explain how family resemblance studies can contribute to study of heredity
Assumes that if a trait is affected by genetic factors, individuals that are more similar genetically should be more similar with respect to that traitlings should be more similar than the height of two cousins
83
What were the problems associated with family resemblance studies
Genetic relatedness is usually closely linked to similar environmental factors --> difficult to separate environment and genetic factors --> hard to see what influences what (i.e. is it the environment or the genetics which influences something)
At best, they are able to provide info about the combined effects of genetic and environmental influences --> need designs to disentangle genes and the environment
84
Explain how twin and adoption studies can contribute to study of heredity
Twin studies = control for the same nature (genetics). Thus, if twins are separated at birth and raied in different enviros, we could see how the nurture/environment influences the development of an individual
Similarities can be attributed to genetic factors, and differences attributed to environmental factors
Meanwhile for adoption, normally the children have no genetic similarity --> allows for control of nurture, and see impacts of nature (genetics)
85
what are monozygotic and dizygotic twins
MZ = genetically identical people
DZ = 50% of identical genetics
86
What are examples of shared environments
Socioeconomic status
Family climate
Geography
Nutrition
87
What are examples of non-shared environments
Pregnancy
Siblings order
Parental preferene
Peers, school
Illness
88
What were the sources of variability in twin studies
Genes
Shared environment
Non shared environments
89
What is heritability (H)
A population statistic which describes the proportion of total variation in a given characteristics in a given population that can be attributed to genetic differences between members of that population
90
How can heritability be estimated
H = Gv / Pv
Gv = genetic variance, Pv = phenotypic variance
Thus 1-H estimates the combined effects of environmental and residual factors
Best estimated by correlation between monozygotic twins reared apart
91
What does H depend on
The genetic variability of that population
Degree of variation in its environment
If we change any of these, estimated heritability would change
92
What would happen if we change variability in the environment
(i.e. reducing variability by doing uniform in schools) --> increased relative contribution of genetic influences. Behaviours will likely be heritable
93
What would happen if we change variability in genetic contributions
(i.e. reducing variability in genes)
Environment will have a more significant contribution (if we control for genetics)
94
What are the problems associated with calculating heritability estimates
Calculating H assumes that genetic and environmental contributinos are independent. However, this isn't necessarily true. Genotype-environment correlations and interactions occur
Heritability seems to vary with SES
Age of comparison
Selective placement of adoption
95
Why is genotype - environment correlations and interactions an issue
Genetic predispostitions could lead to certain environments.
For example, artistically gifted children most likely to have artistic parents who provide the genetic makeup and also environment to explore that art more
96
Why is heritability varying with SES an issue
In high SES, there was a higher correlation between MZ twins, compared to low SES. This suggests that having a good SES / enriched environment enhances the realisation of genetic potential
97
Why is age of comparison an issue
COrrelations change from childhood to adulthood - so H could change depending on age it was estimated
98
Why is selective placement of adoption an issue
Normally people who adopt are more likely to be well - off due to the requirements for people who adopt.
Ultimately, it isn't a random assignment. This could restrict the range and lower correlations between adoptive parents and children which inflate heritability estimates
99
Describe highest concordance rates for an IQ test
Person taking same test twice (87 correlation)
MZ twins reared together (86 correlation)
MZ twins reared apart (76 correlation)
100
Describe lowest concordance rates for an IQ test
Unrelated people living apart (0 correlatiion)
Siblings reared apart (24 correlation)
Parents and children living apart (31 correlation)
101
Can 'H' change?
If a trait has high heritability it means that it isn't greatly affecting by existing environmental differencex experienced in the population
High heritability says nothing about consequences of new environmental manipulations
102
Is 'H' a population statistic - what do we have to be wary of because of this
It tells us about average probabilities, but it doesn't say anything about individual cases
103
What are the assumptions behind 'H'
Assumes that we can distinguish between Observed data (phenotype - p) and latent causes (which can be genetic and environmental)
in practice this is almost impossible
104
Explain the gender differences in IQ in the past
In the past, women tended to have greater verbal capabilities than men
In the past, men tended to have greater visual/spatial abilities than women
105
What are the gender differences in IQ noow (or general trend nowadays)
However, nowadays the gap in IQ differences is closing, and ultimately the gap in verbal and spatial abilities etc is closing
There is basically no gap now
106
What could explain the past gender differences in IQ
A core explanation could be found in the early childhood of an individual. In their early childhood, boys are normally stereotyped with ''boy toys'', and girls have ''girl toys''. However, these toys all promote different things. For example, "boy toys" encourage spatial thinking etc, meanwhile "girl toys" didn't have that idea of spatial awareness.
Could also be due to cultural/exposure difference or innate biological differences (no evidence yet)
107
WHat are the racial differences in IQ
There is a gap in IQ between white and black americans by about 1 standard deviation (15 IQ points)
Overall: Asian > White > Black in terms of IQ points
However, note that this was largely observed in American culture
108
Why might there be group differences (i.e. gender and race differences)
Genetics
Environment
109
What was the proposition put forward by the Bell Curve
Hernstein and Murray wrote the Bell Curve in 1994.
They argued that racial differences in IQ tests are inherited. So they suggest that it follows from heritability of intelligence
Claimed that even when accounting for environmental differences, there was a ten point difference between black and white americans
They wanted this to be taken into account in schools; suggested that affirmative action is useless, and proposed eliminating welfare policies that encouraged poor women to have babies
Argued that devoting resources to help underprivileged is ultimately useless. ANd that resources should be shifted to support high intelligence students rather than disadvantaged people (such as those of ethnic minorities)
110
WHat were the premises of the Bell Curve (the assumptions which weren't necessarily true)
There has to be a single number that can define intelligence --> however, intelligence tests might not cover all different abilities
Intelligence must be able to be ranked --> but different people have different strengths and weaknesses
Intelligence can't be changed --> but it can be through environment
IQ has to be highly heritable --> mixed evidence
111
What were the responses to the 'bell curve'
A lot of backlash against their claims
Especially claims such as:
Flynn - Not impressed by the findings and argued that the people arrived at conclusions inappropriately
Gould - Takes issue with lack of statistical methods used in this experiemnt
112
What were the results of the APA investigation into the claims from the "Bell Curve"
Found that the bell curve was NOT biased in their findings against social, economic, ethnic or racial groups.
However, there is a difference between the concept of bias vs fairness. Bias is a statistical concept - i.e. Does IQ systematically underestimate the intelligence of certain groups
However, fairness is a social issue --> content of an IQ test might be more familiar to some cultures than others. The test might be considered unfair, but statistically, it is unbiased
113
What was the mindset of different races towards academic success
White = Believed that conspicuous effort in studies was looked down upon, but so was poor achievement
Black = Believed that high achievement was valuable but wasn't threatened with poor achievement --> studying isn't a priority
Asian = believed in importance of high achievement, and expected it required sustained effort
114
WHat is stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group
This may cause anxiety about performance and thus impact it in a way that conforms to stereotypes
115
Explain the relation between stereotype threat and performance on IQ tests (Steele and Aronson)
They gave Black americans and WHite americans a test to sit. For some of the people, they were told it was an academic test where their performance matters, whereas others were told it was just a test for standardisation
Black Americans performed worse when told it was an academic test - massive difference between them and White Americans. However, the gap was very minimal when told that it was a test for standardisation
116
What is the Flynn effect
This was the observation of a general increase in the IQ scores over generations
Flynn showed that from 1918 to 1995, Americans gained almost 25 IQ points (in raw scores), but SAT scores have fallen. Ultimately a gain of 5-25 points on IQ per generation over multiple countries as well
Increases are in raw scores, which weren't immediately obvious because mean is recalibrated to 100
117
WHat were potential reasons for the Flynn effect
Evolution (However, it must be too fast for evolution)
Environment (Improved schooling - but most changes occur in tests of fluid intelligence))
Better nutrition (Possibly, but poorer people had the biggest gains in nutritions, but didn't see big effects on IQ)
Familiarity with tests (possibly, but most tests aren't too familir)
118
WHat was Flynn's proposal for the reasons for the Flynn effect
Flynn observed that IQ test score improvements were largely seen in abstract problem solving tests
Thus, he suggested that throguh modernisation, a much larger proportion of eople have become accustomed to abstract concepts
(i.e. What do a dog and a rabbit have in common --> today people are more likely to say both are mammals, which is an abstract concept compared to back then where someone says they have legs)
Ultimately proposes that with modernisation everyone looks at everything with 'scientific spectacles' increasing the ability to perceive abstract things --> improvements in the IQ test
